UNESCO and the WTO: A clash of cultures?

International and Comparative Law Quarterly

Volumn 55, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 635-652

  Voon, Tania ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33748186066     PISSN: 00205893     EISSN: 14716895     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/iclq/lei108     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. UNESCO 'General Conference adopts Convention on the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions' Press Release 2005-128 (20 Oct 2005).
2. United States Mission to UNESCO 'Explanation of Vote of the United States on the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions: Statement delivered by Louise V Oliver, US Ambassador to UNESCO' (Paris 20 Oct 2005).
3. UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions CLT-2005/Convention Diversité-Cult Rev (20 Oct 2005).
4. UNESCO Convention preamble [18].
5. Alan Riding 'U.S. all but alone in opposing Unesco cultural pact' International Herald Tribune (20 Oct 2005).
6. UNESCO Convention Art 29. 1.
7. See
8. (accessed 27 Mar 2006). Liechtenstein and Singapore are WTO Members but not UNESCO Member States. WTO Membership is not restricted to states: Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (Marrakesh Agreement) Arts XI: 1, XII: 1. The following WTO Members are not UNESCO Member States or Associate Members: The European Communities, Hong Kong, and Chinese Taipei. Macau is a WTO Member and a UNESCO Associate Member.
9. See Ivan Bernier and Hélène Ruiz Fabri Évaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 22-3.
10. Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [1].
11. For an overview of the relevant issues see Mary Footer and Christoph Beat Graber 'Trade Liberalization and Cultural Policy' (2000) 3 Journal of International Economic Law 115.
12. See eg Council for Trade in Services, WTO Audiovisual Services: Background Note by the Secretariat S/C/W/40 (15 June 1998) [24], [30];
13. GATT Peter Sutherland Responds to Debate on Audiovisual Sector NUR 069 (14 Oct 1993);
14. Karl Falkenberg 'The Audiovisual Sector' in Jacques Bourgeois et al (eds) The Uruguay Round Results: A European Lawyers' Perspective (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 1995) 429.
15. See eg Ivan Bernier 'Trade and Culture' in Patrick Macrory et al (eds) The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis (Springer Verlag New York 2005) (vol II) 747, 789, 791;
16. Gilbert Gagné 'Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce' in Gilbert Gagné (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (Fides Québec 2005) 37, 51-3;
17. Joost Smiers Artistic Expression in a Corporate World: Do we need monopolistic control? (2004) 24-5, 33;
18. UNCTAD Audiovisual Services: Improving Participation of Developing Countries-Note by the UNCTAD secretariat TD/B/COM.1/EM.20/2 (30 Sept 2002) 16-17.
19. Martti Koskenniemi and Päivi Leino 'Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties' (2002) 15(3) Leiden Journal of International Law 553, 572, 574.
20. Cultural Industries Sectoral Advisory Group on International Trade, Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade An International Agreement on Cultural Diversity: A Model for Discussion (Sept 2002) 9.
21. (accessed 27 Mar 2006).
22. International Network on Cultural Policy Draft International Convention on Cultural Diversity (29 July 2003).
23. International Network on Cultural Policy Sixth INCP Annual Ministerial Meeting: Ministerial Statement (Opatija 16-18 Oct 2003).
24. The INCD attended the WTO Ministerial Conferences in 2001 and 2003: (accessed 27 Mar 2006).
25. (accessed 27 Mar 2006).
26. International Network for Cultural Diversity, Advancing Cultural Diversity Globally: The Role of Civil Society Movements-Report from the Fourth Annual Conference of the International Network for Cultural Diversity in partnership with Culturelink Network/IMO (Opatija 13-15 Oct 2003) 17.
27. International Network for Cultural Diversity Proposed Convention on Cultural Diversity (15 Jan 2003).
28. UNESCO Preliminary study on the technical and legal aspects relating to the desirability of a standard-setting instrument on cultural diversity 166 EX/28 (12 Mar 2003) summary.
29. ibid [3]-[10], annex.
30. UNESCO Decisions adopted by the Executive Board at its 166th Session 166 EX/Decisions (14 May 2003) 11.
31. General Conference, UNESCO Resolution 34 adopted at the 32nd Session (29 Sept 2003-17 Oct 2003) [1].
32. UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Preliminary Report of the Director-General CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/1 (July 2004) [5], [7].
33. The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 17-20 Dec 2003, 30 Mar-3 Apr 2004, and 28-31 May 2004.
34. UNESCO Report of the Third Meeting of Experts (Category VI) on the Preliminary Draft of the Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2004/603/5 (23 June 2004).
35. The meetings were held at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris from 20-24 Sept 2004, 31 Jan-11 Feb 2005, and 25 May-3 June 2005.
36. UNESCO First Session of the Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts on the Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Report by the Secretariat CLT-2004/CONF.201/9 (Nov 2004) [2].
37. UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Text Revised by the Drafting Committee, 14-17 Dec 2004 CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/6 (23 Dec 2004) [7].
38. See also Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/ CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004).
39. Third Intergovernmental Meeting of Experts, UNESCO Recommendation (3 June 2005) [2], [5].
40. UNESCO Convention Art 1(g).
41. ibid Art 3.
42. ibid Art 4.3.
43. ibid Art 4.2.
44. See eg Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/ CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24-5.
45. See also Bonnie Richardson 'Hollywood's Vision of a Clear, Predictable Trade Framework Consistent with Cultural Diversity' in Christoph Beat Graber et al (eds) Free Trade versus Cultural Diversity: WTO Negotiations in the Field of Audiovisual Services (2004) 111, 115-16.
46. UNESCO Convention Art 2. 1.
47. ibid Art 2.2.
48. ibid Art 2.8.
49. ibid Art 6.1.
50. ibid Art 6.2(d).
51. ibid Art 6.2(b).
52. See the concerns raised by WTO Members in Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 24.
53. UNESCO Convention Art 8.1.
54. ibid Art 8.2.
55. ibid Art 12(e).
56. ibid Art 25.1
57. ibid Art 25.2
58. ibid Art 25.3
59. See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [8]-[9].
60. UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Preliminary Report of the Director-General CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/1 (July 2004) Art 24.
61. ibid Art 19 (option B).
62. ibid [13]
63. General Council, WTO Annual Report 2004 WT/GC/86 (12 Jan 2005) 20
64. General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [64]-[85].
65. Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/ CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23;
66. General Conference, UNESCO Preliminary Report by the Director-General Setting out the Situation to be Regulated and the Possible Scope of the Regulating Action Proposed, Accompanied by the Preliminary Draft of a Convention on the Protection and of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions 33 C/23 (4 Aug 2005) [17].
67. General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 Oct 2004 WT/GC/M/88 (11 Nov 2004) [69].
68. See Hélène Ruiz Fabri Analyse et commentaire critique de l'avant-projet de convention sur la protection de la diversité des contenus culturels et des expressions artistiques dans la version soumise pour commentaires et observations aux gouvernements des Etats membres de l'UNESCO: Etude réalisée à la demande de l'Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie (Aug 2004) [4].
69. See eg Keith Acheson and Christopher Maule 'Convention on Cultural Diversity' (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 245, 251;
70. Gilbert Gagné 'Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce' in Gilbert Gagné (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 61.
71. General Council, WTO Minutes of Meeting Held on 20 October 2004 WT/GC/M/ 88 (11 Nov 2004) [65].
72. Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/ CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 23.
73. Council for Trade in Services, WTO Report of the Meeting Held on 23 Sept 2004: Note by the Secretariat S/C/M/74 (10 Nov 2004) [74].
74. WTO Information Note from the Director- General, WTO Public Symposium - 'WTO After 10 Years: Global Problems and Multilateral Solutions', 20 to 22 April 2005 WT/INF/87 (13 Apr 2005) 5.
75. GATS Art XIX:2.
76. Keith Acheson and Christopher Maule 'Convention on Cultural Diversity' (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 243, 251.
77. See also Ivan Bernier and Hélène Ruiz Fabri Évaluation de la faisabilité juridique d'un instrument international sur la diversité culturelle (2002) 42;
78. Gilbert Gagné 'Une Convention internationale sur la diversité culturelle et le dilemme culture-commerce' in Gilbert Gagné (ed) La diversité culturelle: Vers une convention internationale effective? (European Interuniversity Press Brussels 2005) 37, 60;
79. Michael Trebilcock and Robert Howse The Regulation of International Trade (3rd edn Routledge Oxford 2005) 640.
80. See Lelio Iapadre 'Comment' (2004) 28 Journal of Cultural Economics 267, 269.
81. GATS Art XIX: 1; Marrakesh Agreement, preamble.
82. Drafting Committee, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions: Presentation of Comments and Amendments CLT/CPD/2004/ CONF.607/1 partie IV (Dec 2004) 25.
83. ibid 26.
84. Panel Report US-Certain EC Products, [6.13].
85. ibid [2.21]-[2.25], [7.1(a)].
86. Gabrielle Marceau 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties' (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1101. On overlaps between WTO disputes and international disputes in other fora,
87. see Joost Paulwelyn 'Adding Sweeteners to Softwood Lumber: The WTO-NAFTA "Spaghetti Bowl" is cooking' (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 197.
88. See Yuval Shany The Competing Jurisdictions of International Courts and Tribunals (OUP Oxford 2003) 183-5.
89. DSU Art 3.7.
90. See also Joost Pauwelyn Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 317-18.
91. A comparable situation may arise under multilateral environmental agreements. See eg Committee on Trade and Environment, WTO Report (1996) of the Committee on Trade and Environment WT/CTE/1 (12 Nov 1996) [178].
92. Emphasis added.
93. DSU Arts 3.4, 3.6.
94. ibid Art 3.2.
95. Robert Howse 'The Most Dangerous Branch? WTO Appellate Body Jurisprudence on the Nature and Limits of the Judicial Power' in Thomas Cottier and Petros Mavroidis (eds) The Role of the Judge in International Trade Regulation: Experience and Lessons for the WTO vol 4 (The University of Michigan Press Ann Arbor 2003) 11, 15.
96. Appellate Body Report Chile - Alcoholic Beverages, [79].
97. Appellate Body Report US - Gasoline, 16-17.
98. ibid 17.
99. See eg Appellate Body Report EC-Computer Equipment, [84];
100. Appellate Body Report EC-Sardines, [200];
101. Appellate Body Report India-Patents (US), [46];
102. Appellate Body Report Japan-Alcoholic Beverages II 10;
103. Appellate Body Report US-Carbon Steel, [61];
104. Appellate Body Report EC-Chicken Cuts, [176]
105. Appellate Body Report US-Shrimp, [129]-[32].
106. See also Appellate Body Report EC-Tariff Preferences, [163];
107. leaked interim panel report, European Communities-Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.92] at (accessed 27 Mar 2006).
108. Appellate Body Report US-Shrimp, [158].
109. See also Appellate Body Report US-FSC, [166];
110. Appellate Body Report Brazil-Desiccated Coconut, 15;
111. Appellate Body Report Canada-Patent Term, [71].
112. See Appellate Body Report US-Shrimp, [130];
113. Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep 16, [53].
114. See Joost Pauwelyn Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 257-8, 261;
115. Michael Lennard 'Navigating by the Stars: Interpreting the WTO Agreements' (2002) 5(1) Journal of International Economic Law 17, 35-8.
116. But see Gabrielle Marceau 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties' (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1087.
117. See leaked interim panel report, European Communities-Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS 291, 292, 293 (7 Feb 2006) [7.68]-[7.71] at (accessed 27 Mar 2006).
118. See DSU Arts 1.1, 11, 17.6, 19.1. See also Gabrielle Marceau 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties' (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1107;
119. Joost Pauwelyn Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 444.
120. But see Joel Trachtman 'Review of Joost Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of International Law' (2004) 98 American Journal of International Law 855, 857.
121. See eg Gabrielle Marceau 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties' (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1102-4;
122. Joel Trachtman 'The Domain of WTO Dispute Resolution' (1999) 40(2) Harvard International Law Journal 333, 342;
123. Joel Trachtman 'The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization' (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 139, 140-1.
124. See also John McGinnis 'The Appropriate Hierarchy of Global Multilateralism and Customary International Law: The Example of the WTO' (2003) 44 Virginia Journal of International Law 229, 255, 266-8;
125. Debra Steger 'The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization' (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 142, 143-4.
126. Joost Pauwelyn Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 25-40, 465, 466, 469;
127. Joost Pauwelyn 'The Jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization' (2004) 98 American Society of International Law Proceedings 135, 138.
128. See also Pieter Jan Kuijper 'The Law of GATT as a Special Field of International Law' (1994) Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 227;
129. Lorand Bartels 'Applicable Law in WTO Dispute Settlement Proceedings' (2001) 35(3) Journal of World Trade 499, 518;
130. Panel Report Korea-Procurement, [7.96].
131. See eg Appellate Body Report EC-Hormones, [123]-[124];
132. Appellate Body Report Argentina-Textiles and Apparel, [13], [691;
133. Appellate Body Report EC-Poultry, [2], [78]-[79], [81];
134. Appellate Body Report EC-Export Subsidies on Sugar, [310]-[313].
135. See also Anja Lindroos and Michael Mehling 'Dispelling the Chimera of "Self-contained Regimes": International Law and the WTO' (2006 16(5) European Journal of International Law 857, 876-7.
136. '[T]he method of literal interpretation is relatively safe, and... its results are more easily accepted than results reached by other interpretative tools': Claus-Dieter Ehlermann 'Six Years on the Bench of the "World Trade Court": Some Personal Experiences as Member of the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization' (2002) 36(4) Journal of World Trade 605, 617. On the gradual evolution of the Appellate Body's approach,
137. see Federico Ortino 'Treaty Interpretation and the WTO Appellate Body' in US-Gambling, A Critique' (2006) 9(1) Journal of International Economic Law 117.
138. Appellate Body Report US- Underwear, 15.
139. ibid. See also Appellate Body Report US-Wool Shirts and Blouses, 16.
140. Appellate Body Report EC-Hormones, [177].
141. Appellate Body Report US-Carbon Steel, [90].
142. Appellate Body Report Brazil-Aircraft, [139].
143. See also Appellate Body Report EC-Bananas III, [136], quoting the panel with approval.
144. Appellate Body Report Mexico-Taxes on Soft Drinks, [69].
145. ibid [79].
146. See eg Gabrielle Marceau 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and other Treaties' (2001) 35(6) Journal of World Trade 1081, 1084.
147. Joost Pauwelyn 'The Role of Public International Law in the WTO: How Far Can We Go?' (2001) 95 American Journal of International Law 535, 551.
148. See also Joost Pauwelyn Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law (CUP Cambridge 2003) 329.
149. See eg UNESCO Preliminary Report of the Director-General Containing Two Preliminary Drafts of a Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions CLT/CPD/2005/CONF.203/6 (3 Mar 2005) Appendix 1 (composite text), Art 19 (option B) (emphasis added).
150. Emphasis added.
151. See VCLT, Art 30(4).