Modernization, citizenship, and stratification: Historical processes and recent changes in Brazil

Daedalus

Volumn 129, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 171-194

  Reis, Elisa P ^a  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33748173783     PISSN: 00115266     EISSN: 15486192     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. Philippe Schmitter, Interest Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971);
2. Alfred Stepan, The State and Society, Peru in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978);
3. James Malloy, ed., Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1978).
4. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950).
5. Ralph Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (London: Routledge, 1959);
6. Anthony Giddens, "T. H. Marshall, the State and Democracy," in Citizenship Today, ed. Martin Bulmer and Anthony M. Rees (London: UCL Press, 1996).
7. One of the exceptions is Michael Mann, who reacts against what he considers to be Marshall's Anglophile and evolutionary model. Against a single trajectory view, Mann proposes a typology of the progression of citizenship in advanced industrial countries that distinguishes between five forms of expansion. Michael Mann, "Ruling Class Strategies and Citizenship," Sociology 21 (3) (1987): 339-354.
8. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays.
9. See also T. H. Marshall, Class, Citizenship and Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1964).
10. Louis Dumont, "Religion, Politics and Society in the Individualistic Universe," Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (London: The Institute, 1970).
11. Elisa P. Reis, "O Estado Nacional Como Ideologie: o Caso Brasileiro," Estudos Historicos 1 (2) (1988): 187-203;
12. reprinted in Elisa P. Reis, Processos e Escolhas (Rio de Janeiro: ContraCapa, 1998).
13. Analyses of Brazilian ideological processes have usually centered their attention on the cultural legacy of colonization. See, for example, Sergio Buarque de Holanda, Raizes do Brasil, 8th ed. (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Jose Olympio Editora, 1975);
14. Richard Morse, O Espelho de Prospero (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1988). Important as these analyses are, they do not explain why and how such a tradition has perpetuated itself, thus relying on some sort of a residual explanation.
15. Reinhard Bendix, "Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered," Comparative Studies in Society and History IX (April 1967): 292-346.
16. Luiz J. Werneck Vianna, Liberalismo e Sindicato (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1976);
17. Otavio G. Velho, Capitalismo Autoritario e Campesinato (São Paulo: Difel, 1976);
18. Simon Schwartzman, Bases do Autoritarismo Brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Campus, 1982);
19. Elisa P. Reis, "The Agrarian Roots of Authoritarian Modernization in Brazil," Ph.D. dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., 1979.
20. Illustrative here is the often-quoted sentence attributed to one of the leading politicians of the period: "Let's make the revolution before the people take the initiative." On the 1930 Revolution, see Boris Fausto, A Revolucao de 1930 (São Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1970).
21. Reis, "The Agrarian Roots of Authoritarian Modernization in Brazil";
22. Reis, "Elites Agrarias, State-Building e Autoritarismo," Dados 25 (3) (1982): 331-348.
23. Wanderley G. dos Santos, Cidadania e Justica: a Politica Social na Ordem Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Campus, 1979);
24. Vianna, Liberalismo e Sindicato.
25. Celso Lafer, O Sistema Politico Brasileiro (São Paulo: Editora Perspectiva, 1975);
26. Alberto Venancio Filho, A Intervencao do Estado no Dominio Economico (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 1968).
27. See Francisco Weffort, O Populismo na Politica Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1978);
28. Octavio Ianni, O Colapso do Populismo no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Civilizacao Brasileira, 1968).
29. Peter Evans, Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State and Local Capital in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979);
30. Tom Trebat, Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises: A Case Study of the State as Entrepreneur (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983);
31. Carlos E. Martins, ed., Estado e Capitalismo no Brasil (São Paulo: Hucitec, 1977).
32. On the political incorporation of the countryside, see Elisa P. Reis, "Mudanca e Continuidade na Politica Rural Brasileira," Dados 31 (2) (1988): 203-218.
33. That does not mean that the welfare system was very progressive, or very effective. It only indicates that the state could afford to carry out the model because the number of contributors was continuously expanding as long as economic growth rates were positive.
34. Simon Schwartzman, "Brazil: The Social Agenda," in this issue of Dædalus.
35. Rapid urban growth had actually started much earlier, but high fertility rates in the countryside postponed the decline of the rural population.
36. Pedro L. Barros Silva, Marcio Pochmann, and José Abrahão, "Açaõ dos Atores na Superação da Exclusão Social no Brasil: Experiências Atuais; Série Exclusión Social Mercosur," Documento De Trabajo 116, Equipo Tecnico Multidisciplinario, OIT/Fundacion Ford, November 1999, esp. 37-38.
37. Pedro L. Barros Silva, Marcio Pochmann, and José Abrahão, "Açaõ dos Atores na Superação da Exclusão Social no Brasil: Experiências Atuais; Série Exclusión Social Mercosur Ibid., 39-40. The authors estimate that in the 1990s, 80 percent of new job positions in Brazil were in the informal sector.
38. Amaury de Souza and Bolivar Lamounier, "A Feitura da Nova Constituição: Um Reexame da Cultura Politica Brasileira," Planejamento e Politicas Publicas I (2) (1981): 17-37.
39. IBGE, Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilios (Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 1990).
40. Ricardo Paes de Barros and Rosane Mendonca, "Uma Caracterização das Condicoes de Pobreza e de Desigualdade no Brasil," IPEA, Rio de Janeiro, September 1999.
41. Ricardo Paes de Barros and Rosane Mendonca, "Uma Caracterização das Condicoes de Pobreza e de Desigualdade no Brasil," 1999 Ibid.
42. Nelson do Valle Silva, "Vinte e Tres Anos de Mobilidade Social no Brasil," Teoria e Sociedade (October 1998): 181-211.
43. Abram de Swaan, In Care of the State: Health Care, Education and Welfare in Europe and the USA in the Modern Era (London: Polity Press, 1988);
44. Stein Ringen, The Possibility of Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987);
45. Sidney Verba and Gary Orren, Equality in America: The View from the Top (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1985);
46. Sidney Verba et al., Elites and the Idea of Equality: A Comparison of Japan, Sweden and the United States (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1987).
47. My study is part of an ongoing international comparative project on "Elite Perceptions of Poverty." A summary of the project appears in the Comparative Research Programme on Poverty (CROP) online Newsletter, October 1999, at .
48. For international comparisons of inequality, see Barros and Mendonca, "Uma Caracterizacao das Condicoes de Pobreza e de Desigualdade no Brasil." The authors clearly indicate that, compared to other very unequal societies, Brazil cannot be considered poor.
49. The survey was a collaborative project developed by a group of specialists on the political culture of the Brazilian elite. See Maria Regina S. Lima et al., "Elites Estrategicas e Consolidacao Democratica," IUPERJ, Rio de Janeiro, 1994.
50. The exceptions to that view correspond to particular regional sectors, as I discuss later on.
51. Elisa P. Reis, "Elite Perceptions of Poverty: Brazil," IDS Bulletin 30 (2) (1999): 127-136.
52. As inflation and compensatory indexation became institutionalized, regressive distribution systematically punished those at the bottom of the social hierarchy. The more access one had to the financial market, the more one benefited from protective mechanisms against inflation.
53. Elisa P. Reis, "Banfield's Amoral Familism Revisited: Implications of High Inequality Structures for Civil Society," in Real Civil Societies, ed. Jeffrey Alexander (London: Sage Publications, 1998), 21-39.
54. Renato Boschi, A Arte da Associação, Política de Base e Democracia no Brasil (São Paulo: Editora Vertice, 1987);
55. Ana M. Doimo, Voz e Vez do Popular (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Dumara, 1995).
56. Richard Wilson, Compliance Ideologies, Rethinking Political Culture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).