From the organism of a body to the body of an organism: Occurrence and meaning of the word 'organism' from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 319-339

  Cheung, Tobias ^a  

^a HUMBOLDT UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORY; NOMENCLATURE; REVIEW;

HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HISTORY, MEDIEVAL; TERMINOLOGY; TERMINOLOGY AS TOPIC;

EID: 33748098542     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: 1474001X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087406007953     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Quotation marks indicate words discussed in English and italics indicate the spelling of the word in the language in which it occurs in the original text. The word from the original text is sometimes given in parentheses after quotation marks. Capitalization reflects original usage. Unless otherwise indicated, translations are my own.
2. R. Koselleck, Vergangene Zukunft, Zur Semantik geschichtlicher Zeiten, 4th edn (1st edn 1989), Frankfurt am Main, 2000, 10-12.
3. G. Canguilhem, 'La formation du concept de régulation biologique aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles', in idem, Idéologie et rationalité dans l'histoire des sciences de la vie, Paris, 2000, 81-99;
4. and R. Specht, 'Über "Occasio" und verwandte Begriffe bei Zabarella und Descartes', Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte (1972), 16, 1-27, 12-13.
5. Cf. C. Robin, 'Recherches historiques sur l'origine et le sens des termes organisme et organisation', Journal de l'anatomie et de physiologie normales et pathologiques de l'homme et des animaux (1880), 16, 1-55;
6. H. Schmidt, Die lebendige Sprache. Zur Entstehung des Organismuskonzepts, Berlin, 1986 (Linguistische Studien. Reihe A. Arbeitsberichte 151);
7. and O. Breidbach, 'Organismus', in Enzyklopädie Philosophie, (ed. H. J. Sandkühler et al.), 2 vols., Hamburg, 1999, i, 985-7. K. Kucharczik wrote his doctoral thesis ('Der Organismusbegriff in der Sprachwissenschaft des 19. Jahrhunderts, Technische Universität Berlin, 1998) on the usage of the word ' organism' in the linguistics of the nineteenth century.
8. In the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth, physiologies share research fields with medical studies, anatomies and so-called psychologies. They often focus, as physiological anthropologies, on the specific position of the human among other animals. Cf. F. Hildebrandt, Lehrbuch der Physiologie, 2nd edn, Erlangen, 1799, 1-2.
9. J. H. Wolf, Der Begriff »Organ« in der Medizin, München, 1971.
10. B. Balan, 'Premières recherches sur l'origine et la formation du concept de l'économie animale', Revue d'histoire des sciences (1975), 28, 289-326, 326 and footnote 127.
11. For a verification and discussion of the source see M. Mertens, Les Alchimistes grecs. Zosime de Panoplis. Mémoires authentiques, Paris, 1995, Introduction, pp. xxii-xxix and liii-liv;
12. and J. Letrouit, 'Chronologie des alchimistes grecs', in Alchimie: Art, histoire et mythes. Actes du 1er colloque international de la Société d'étude de l'histoire de l'alchemie (Paris, Collège de France, 14-15 mars 1991) (ed. D. Kahn and S. Matton), Paris and Milan, 1995, 11-93, 37 and 92.
13. The exact period of his life is unknown; see M. Mertens, Alchimie: Art, Histoire et Mythes. Actes du 1er Colloque International de la Société d'étude de l'histoire de l'alchemie op. cit. (7), p. xv.
14. Marcianus Graecus 299, M, f. 116v; in M. Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs, 3 vols., Osnabrück, 1967 (reprint; first published Paris, 1888), ii, 252.
15. A French translation can be found in Collection des Anciens Alchimistes Grecs ibid., iii, 242. I am grateful to Robert Halleux and Diether R. Reinsch for their help with the translation.
16. Gerhoh of Reichersberg, De edificio Dei (1126-32), in Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum (ed. E. Dümmler et al.), 3 vols., 1891-7, iii, 172-3. Cf. Patrologia Latina, Vol. 194, col. 1258C. I have to thank Wolfgang Maaz and Marie-Luise Weber for their valuable hints and suggestions about the translation of the text, which has not been translated before. Weber also checked the spelling of the word organismos in the original manuscript in Munich and confirmed that the electronic resources of the new Mittellateinisches Wörterbuch (Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften) - which currently cover the period from 600 to 1280 within the borders of contemporary Germany - contain no other instances of the word.
17. F. Blatt und Y. Lefèvre, Novum glossarium mediae latinitatis ab anno DCCC usque ad annum MCC, Ordior-Oz, Hafniae, 1983, 776.
18. No other instance of the word Organismus in Latin dictionaries is known. Cf. Kucharczik, Novum Glossarium Mediae Latinitatis Ab Anno DCCC Usque Ad Annum MCC, Ordior-Oz op. cit. (4), 23.
19. P. Stotz, Handbuch zur lateinischen Sprache des Mittelalters, 5 vols., München, 1996-2004, i (2002), 485.
20. See, for example, R. K. Barnhart (ed.), The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, New York, 1988, 735;
21. The Oxford English Dictionary (ed. J. Simpson and E. Weiner), 2nd edn, 20 vols., Oxford, 1989 (1st edn 1884-1928), x, 922;
22. A. Dardi, Dalla provincia all'Europa: l'influsso del francese sull'italiano tra il 1650 e il 1715, Florence, 1992, 545, footnote 129;
23. M. Echelard-Dumas, 'Der Begriff des Organismus bei Leibniz: " biologische Tatsache" und Fundierung' (tr. J. Orzschig), Studia Leibnitiana (1976), 8, 160-86, 160, footnote 1.
24. Kucharczik Studia Leibnitiana (op. cit. (4), 22-3) refers also to Evelyn's Sylva for the first usage of the word 'organism' in the seventeenth century. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes a later edition of Evelyn's Sylva, but refers to the edition of 1664 for the first usage of the word.
25. Cf. G. de la Bédoyère, The Writings of John Evelyn, Woodbridge, 1995, 173-80.
26. C. R. Weld, A History of the Royal Society with Memoirs of the Presidents compiled from Authentic Documents, 2 vols., London, 1848, i, 101 and 137, footnote 15.
27. The fourth edition was divided into two parts. The first part contains 'Silva', and the second four other texts: 'Terra', 'Pomona', 'Acetaria' and 'Kalendarium hortense'.
28. J. Evelyn, Silva, Or a Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions ... In Two Books. Together with an Historical Account of the Sacredness and the Use of Standing Groves. Terra, A Philosophical Essay of Earth, being a Lecture in Course. To which is annexed Pomona: Or, An Appendix concenrning Fruit-Trees, in relation to Cyder; The Making, and several Ways of Ordering it. Published by Express Order of the Royal Society. Also Acetaria: Or, a Discourse of Sallets. With Kalendarium Hortense; Or The Gard'ners Almanack; Directing what he is to do Monthly throughout the Year, 4th edn, London, 1706 (1st edn 1664), 353. I also refer to a London, 1776 edition and a Brough, 2001 reprint of the 4th edition.
29. Evelyn, Silva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions ... in Two Books. Together with An Historical Account of the Sacredness and the Use of Standing Groves. Terra, A Philosophical Essay of Earth, Being A Lecture in Course. to Which Is Annexed Pomona: Or, An Appendix Concenrning Fruit-Trees, in Relation to Cyder; the Making, and Several Ways of Ordering It. Published by Express Order of the Royal Society. Also Acetaria: Or, A Discourse of Sallets. with Kalendarium Hortense; or the Gard'ners Almanack; Directing What He Is to Do Monthly Throughout the Year, 4th Edn op. cit. (17), 1776 edn, 648.
30. Evelyn, Silva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions ... in Two Books. Together with An Historical Account of the Sacredness and the Use of Standing Groves. Terra, A Philosophical Essay of Earth, Being A Lecture in Course. to Which Is Annexed Pomona: Or, An Appendix Concenrning Fruit-Trees, in Relation to Cyder; the Making, and Several Ways of Ordering It. Published by Express Order of the Royal Society. Also Acetaria: Or, A Discourse of Sallets. with Kalendarium Hortense; or the Gard'ners Almanack; Directing What He Is to Do Monthly Throughout the Year, 4th Edn op. cit. (17), 4th edn, 2001 reprint, 261.
31. Evelyn, Silva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions ... in Two Books. Together with An Historical Account of the Sacredness and the Use of Standing Groves. Terra, A Philosophical Essay of Earth, Being A Lecture in Course. to Which Is Annexed Pomona: Or, An Appendix Concenrning Fruit-Trees, in Relation to Cyder; the Making, and Several Ways of Ordering It. Published by Express Order of the Royal Society. Also Acetaria: Or, A Discourse of Sallets. with Kalendarium Hortense; or the Gard'ners Almanack; Directing What He Is to Do Monthly Throughout the Year, 4th Edn op. cit. (17), 4th edn, 2001 reprint, 262-4.
32. Cf. Evelyn, Silva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions ... in Two Books. Together with An Historical Account of the Sacredness and the Use of Standing Groves. Terra, A Philosophical Essay of Earth, Being A Lecture in Course. to Which Is Annexed Pomona: Or, An Appendix Concenrning Fruit-Trees, in Relation to Cyder; the Making, and Several Ways of Ordering It. Published by Express Order of the Royal Society. Also Acetaria: Or, A Discourse of Sallets. with Kalendarium Hortense; or the Gard'ners Almanack; Directing What He Is to Do Monthly Throughout the Year, 4th Edn op. cit. (17), 4th edn, 2001 reprint, 262-3: 'Contemplate we again, what it is which begins the motion, and kindles the flame of these automata, causing them first to radiate in the earth, and then to display their top in the air'.
33. In 1671 Croone, a member of the Royal Society, produced a manuscript paper claiming that preformed embryonic structures can be detected in the unincubated chick embryo. In De la recherche de la vérité (1674) Nicolas Malebranche combined the concept of infinite divisibility of matter and preformation with a theory of insensible grains of trees that are encapsulated in each other.
34. For the contemporary religious and intellectual context of Grew's Cosmologia Sacra, and a brief summary of its content, see W. LeFanu, Nehemiah Grew: A Study and Bibliography of his Writings, Detroit, 1990, 53-5 and 143-6.
35. N. Grew, An Idea of a Phytological History Propounded. Together with a Continuation of the Anatomy of Vegetables, Particularly Prosecuted upon Roots. And an Account of the Vegetation of Roots. Grounded Chiefly thereupon, London, 1 673;
36. and N. Grew, The Anatomy of Plants, reprint, New York and London, 1965 (first published 1687).
37. The seven chapters of The Anatomy of Plants are divided according to the 'Method of Nature her self, in her continued series of Vegetation; proceeding from the Seed sown, to the formation of the Root, Trunk, Branch, Leaf, Flower, Fruit, and last of all, of the Seed also to be sawn again; all which, we shall, in the same order, particularly speak of (Grew, ibid., 1). For a discussion of Grew's methodology in The Anatomy of Plants see P. Anker, 'The economy of nature in the botany of Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712)', Archives of Natural History (2004), 31, 191-207.
38. N. Grew, Cosmologia Sacra: Or A DISCOURSE Of The UNIVERSE As it is the Creature and Kingdom OF GOD. Chiefly Written to Demonstrate the Truth and Excellency of the BIBLE; which contains the Laws of his Kingdom in this Lower World. In Five Books, London, 1701, Book I, 4-5 and 13-14.
39. Garrett highlights the fact that Grew's late vitalism has been influenced by Henry More, Ralph Cudworth and John Ray: B. Garrett, 'Vitalism and teleology in the natural philosophy of Nehemiah Grew', BJHS (2003), 36, 63-81, 72.
40. Grew, BJHS op. cit. (24), Book II, Chapter 1(12), 32-3.
41. Cf. Grew, Anatomy of Plants, op. cit. (23), Dedication to King Charles II: 'That by all these Means, the Ascent of the Sap, the Distribution of Aer, the Confection of several sorts of liquors, as Lympha's, Milk, Oyls, Balsames; with other parts of Vegetation, are all contrived and brought about in a Mechanical way'.
42. The text was probably written between 1571 and 1574 and posthumously published in 1621. Cf. Suárez, De Anima, Book III, Chapter II, n. 14;
43. in Opera omnia, new edition (ed. Carlo Berton), 28 vols., Paris, 1856-78, iii, 475b.
44. For the use of the terms among medieval authors, especially within the context of late Aristotelian concepts of individualization, see D. Des Chene, Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul, Ithaca and London, 2000, 94-102.
45. Grew, Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), Book II, Chapter 1 (22), 34.
46. He uses the word 'Organism' for the first time in Chapter 4 (Of Compounded Bodies, 4) of the first book (Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), 18).
47. For other references see Grew, Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), Book II, Chapter 2 (11), 42:
48. the 'advantageous Organism of the Eye' of birds for a 'Quicker Sight' and Book II, Chapter 3 (38), 46: 'But the Organism of every part of the Brain, particularly, of the Chambers of the Optics, Nerves, in which, if any where in the Brain, the Phantastick Images of Visible Things are made; is altogether different from that of the Eye.' Grew, Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), Book I, Chapter 4 (7), 18
49. calls the 'Organism' also the 'natural Structure' of the organic body. Furthermore, Grew mentions once the 'Organism of Mind', Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), Book II, Chapter 7 (51), 78, as a disposition of faculties for mental activities.
50. Grew, Life's Form: Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul op. cit. (24), Book II, Chapter 1 (15), 22.
51. The word monade occurs around 1695 in Leibniz's texts. Cf. D. Rutherford, Leibniz's and the Rational Order of Nature, Cambridge, 1995, 166.
52. G. W. Leibniz, Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe, Akademie-Ausgabe (ed. Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften), Berlin, 1923-, Section 6, Volume 4, Part B, 1615:
53. 'Le rapport general et exacte de toutes choses entre elles, prouve que toutes les parties de la matiere sont pleines d'organisme. Car chaque partie de la matiere devant exprimer les autres et parmy les autres y ayant beaucoup d'organiques, il est manifest qu'il faut qu 'il y ait de l'organique dans ce qui represente l'organique. ' Nunziante gives this passage as the first use of the word organisme in Leibniz's writings. A.-M. Nunziante, Organismo come armonia; la genesi del concetto di organismo vivente in G. W. Leibniz, Trento, 2002, 121-2, footnote 25.
54. In R. Finster, Der Briefwechsel mit Antoine Arnauld, Hamburg, 1997, 308.
55. This version was probably written earlier than the second version. Cf. Der Briefwechsel Mit Antoine Arnauld ibid., 411 (notes).
56. Finster, Der Briefwechsel Mit Antoine Arnauld op. cit. (31), 344.
57. In L. Couturat (ed.), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Opuscules et fragments inédits, Paris, 1903, Hildesheim, Zürich and New York, 1988, 11-16.
58. In Couturat, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Opuscules et Fragments Inédits op. cit. (33), 10-11.
59. Lady Masham wrote in English but used the French word Organisme, with a capital. Compare C. I. Gerhardt, Die philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz, 7 vols., Hildesheim, 1978 (reprint; first published Berlin, 1875-1890), iii, 350 and 358.
60. See, for example, Leibniz, in Gerhardt, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz op. cit. (35), iii, 356, 361;
61. Gerhardt, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz vi, 41, 44, 544;
62. Gerhardt, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz vii, 418;
63. and in Couturat, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz op. cit. (33), 16.
64. In the Nouveaux essais Leibniz only used compounds such as corps organique or vivant organique. It seems that Leibniz did not use the word organisme in his correspondence with Louis Bourguet, but the correspondence has not yet been completely edited. Leibniz also referred to the first or second edition of Sylva in a comment on the Manila Sapientiae Christinae of Hostius (Cologne, 1630): 'Uti pro hortulanis Almanach Evelini, et Almanack oeconomicale in Colero'. Leibniz, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz op. cit. (30), Section 6, Volume 2, 150). The text is dated post quem October-November (?) 1671.
65. Cf. Leibniz, Préface, Théodicée (organisation), in Gerhardt, op. cit. (35), vi, 42;
66. and letter to Clarke on 18 August 1716 (organisme), in ibid., vii, 418.
67. Leibniz, Nouveaux Essais II, 27, 6
68. in Gerhardt, Nouveaux Essais II op. cit. (35), v, 215.
69. Leibniz, in Couturat, Nouveaux Essais II op. cit. (33), 16: 'Natura enim cum a sapientissimo artifice fabricata sit, ubiquein interioribus organica est. Et nihil aliud Organismus viventium est quam divinior mechanismus in infinitum subtilitate procedens.'
70. Leibniz, letter to Arnauld on 9 September or 9 October 1687 (organisation), in Gerhardt, Nouveaux Essais II op. cit. (35), ii, 126;
71. and letter to Lady Masham, 30 June 1704 (organisme), in Nouveaux Essais IIibid., iii, 356.
72. Leibniz, Nouveaux Essais II op. cit. (30), Section 6, Volume 4, Part B, 1615.
73. Bourguet was in contact with Leibniz and Johann Christian Wolff. The Fonds Louis Bourguet of the Bibliothèque publique et universitaire in Neuchâtel also contains a Dissertation sur les monades and a Défense de la philosophie de Leibniz contre M. de Crousaz.
74. Cf. L. Bourguet, Lettres philosophiques sur la formation des sels et des crystaux et sur la génération et le méchanisme organique des Plantes et des Animaux, Amsterdam, 1729, Part 2, 8.
75. For the notion of the échelle des êtres in Bourguet's writings see A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being, Cambridge, MA and London, 1936;
76. G. Barsanti, La Scala, la Mappa, l'Albero. Immagini e classificazioni della natura fra Sci e Ottocento, Florence, 1992;
77. and A. Diekmann, Klassifikation - System - 〉scala naturae〈. Das Ordnen der Objekte in Naturwissenschaft und Pharmazie zwischen 1700 und 1850, Stuttgart, 1992 (Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Pharmazie 64. Dissertation. Marburg 1992).
78. Bourguet, Klassifikation - System - 〉Scala Naturae〈. das Ordnen der Objekte in Naturwissenschaft und Pharmazie Zwischen 1700 und 1850 op. cit. (43), 66.
79. Bourguet was one of the first French naturalists to use often the word' organized body' (corps organisé) instead of 'organic body'. For the influence of Bourguet's terminology on the French natural history see J. Schiller, 'La Notion d'organisation dans l'œuvre de Louis Bourguet (1678-1742)', Gesnerus (1975), 32, 87-97, 93.
80. A. Hatzfeld, A. Darmesteter and A. Thomas (eds.), Dictionnaire général de la langue française du commencement du XVIIe siècle jusqu'à nos jours ..., 7th edn, 2 vols., 1924 (1st edn 1889-1901), ii, 1640. The page reference of Bourguet's Lettres philosophiques in the article is not correct. Instead of page 66, the author of the article indicates page 6 (which was later copied in many other essays and books).
81. Cf. J. Le Clerc, Bibliothèque choisie, 28 vols., Amsterdam, 1703-18, ii (1703), 361 ('organization d'un corps' instead of 'Organism of a Body') and 377 ('disposition de l'Oeuïl' instead of 'Organism of the Eye').
82. Letter of Antonio Conti to Antonio Vallisnieri of 2 January 1726, in N. Badaloni, Antonio Conti. Scritti filosofico, Napoli, 1972, 402: 'non ho accusato la riccevuta della lettera unita alla disertazione della dama senese. Fattala trascrivere, io gliel'invierò insieme con la lettera del sig. Borghet. Il suo sistema dell'organismo del mondo contiene una bella idea, ma temo ehe l'ignoranza in cui siamo de'veri fenomeni e delle vere regole della natura non dia troppo del gusto del nostro secolo.' There are 180 letters from Antonio Vallisnieri to Bourguet (from 1710 to 1729) in the Fonds Louis Bourguet of the Bibliothèque publique et universitaire in Neuchâtel.
83. La Galleria di Minerva o vero notizie universali di quanto e stato scritto da Letterati d'Europa non solo nel presente Secolo, mà ancora ne' già trascorsi, in qualunque materia Sacra, e Profana, Retorica, Politica, Istorica, Cronologica, Geografica, Theologica, Filosofica, Matematica, Medica, Legale, e finalmente in ogui Scienza, e in ogni Arte si Mecanica come Liberale, Venezia (1708), 6, 215:
84. 'Nel organismo mecanico ò seconda lucubratione, dal principio tratta de spiriti degli animati, loco materia, generatione, virtù, e modo d'operare, seconda le loro figure, tutto sempre corrispondente a primi principii, poi passa all'Anima immortale ...' The author of the article resumes a work of Ferdinando Santanello (University of Naples). For more references on the occurence of the word organismo in the second half of the eighteenth century see Dardi, La Galleria di Minerva O Vero Notizie Universali di Quanto e Stato Scritto da Letterati D'Europa Non Solo Nel Presente Secolo, Mà Ancora Ne' Già Trascorsi, in Qualunque Materia Sacra, e Profana, Retorica, Politica, Istorica, Cronologica, Geografica, Theologica, Filosofica, Matematica, Medica, Legale, e Finalmente in Ogui Scienza, e in Ogni Arte Si Mecanica Come Liberale op. cit. (13);
85. and Nuovo Cortelazzo: Dizionario etimologico della lingua italiana (ed. M. Cortelazzo and P. Zolli), 2nd edn, Bologna, 1999.
86. C. v. Linné, Oeconomia naturœ, diss. [1749], resp. J. C. Biberg, 1750, 4.
87. In the German translation of 1777 (Des Ritter Carl von Linné auserlesene Abhandlungen aus der Naturgeschichte, Physick und Arzneywissenschaft, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1777, ii, 36), 'Organismus' is translated with 'organs'.
88. W. Harvey, Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus, Frankfurt, 1628.
89. One of his teachers was the iatrochemist Georg Wolfgang Wedel. See B. J. Gottlieb, Bedeutung und Auswirkungen des hallischen Professors und kgl. Preuß. Leibarztes Georg Ernst Stahl auf den Vitalismus des XVIII. Jahrhunderts, insbesondere die Schule von Montpellier, Halle, 1943 (Nova Acta Leopoldina 12), 452-62;
90. and J. Geyer-Kordesch, Pietismus, Medizin und Aufklärung in Preußen im 18. Jahrhundert, Das Leben und Werk Georg Ernst Stahls, Tübingen, 2000 (Hallesche Beiträge zur europäischen Aufklärung 13), 16.
91. G. E. Stahl, De mechanismi et organistmi diversitate (1706)
92. in G. E. Stahl, idem, Theoria medica vera. Physiologiam & Pathologiam, tanquam doctrinae mediciae partes vere contemplativas, e naturae & Artis veris fundamentis, intaminata ratione, & inconcussa experientia sistens, Halle, 1708, 6, 13, 16, 17, 18, 52.
93. See also G. E. Stahl, idem, Positiones, De Aestu Maris Microcosmici, Seu Fluxu et Refluxu Sanguinis: Turn in pluribus aliis luculentis Exemplis, tum praecipue Paroxysmo Febrili Tertianario, Manifesto in Sensus incurrente, mediante vero Motu Tonico Partium Porosarum, Ut praecipuo Organismo, in effectum deduci solito: Ad Motus Sanguinis Tonici veritatem ... usum, ulterius illustrandum, Febrium vero Pathologia Fundamentum, digito designandum, Halle, 1696.
94. The doctoral thesis is dated January 1684. The president of the jury was Rudolf Wilhelm Krauß (or Crause). Cf. G. E. Stahl, Dissertatio Medica Inauguralis De Intestinis, eorumque Morbis ac Symptomatis, eognoscendis & curandis/Quam consensu et autoritate ... Praeside Dn. Rudolfo Wilhelmo Krauß... Publicè stabilitum ibit Georgius Ernestus Stahl/Onoldo-Francus. Ad diem Januarii M DC XXCIV, Jena 1684 [54 pages, unnumbered], [91, title of Section I, Part 2: 'PHYSIOLOGICUM. De officio, & sine organico Intestinorum, seu Organismi eorum Formali.' Later editions are from 1704 and 1711.
95. Stahl, Dissertatio Medica Inauguralis de Intestinis, Eorumque Morbis Ac Symptomatis, Eognoscendis & Curandis/Quam Consensu et Autoritate ... Praeside Dn. Rudolfo Wilhelmo Krauß... Publicè Stabilitum Ibit Georgius Ernestus Stahl/Onoldo-Francus. Ad Diem Januarii M DC XXCIV op. cit. (55), [1].
96. In his French translation of Stahl's work, Blondin often used the word 'organism' for various other Latin terms (for example corpus organicus). Cf. T. Blondin, Œuvres médico-philosophiques et pratiques de G.-E. Stahl. Traduites et commentées, 6 vols., Paris, 1859-63, iii, 11-12.
97. Stahl, ŒUvres Médico-philosophiques et Pratiques de G.-E. Stahl. Traduites et Commentées op. cit. (55), [2].
98. Stahl, ŒUvres Médico-philosophiques et Pratiques de G.-E. Stahl. Traduites et Commentées op. cit. (55), [11].
99. Stahl, ŒUvres Médico-philosophiques et Pratiques de G.-E. Stahl. Traduites et Commentées op. cit. (55), [9-16].
100. Stahl, ŒUvres Médico-philosophiques et Pratiques de G.-E. Stahl. Traduites et Commentées op. cit. (55), [1-3J.
101. For the notion of life in Stahl's writings see F. P. de Ceglia, Introduzione alla fisiologia di Georg Ernst Stahl, Lecce, 2000, 33-40.
102. Stahl, Theoria medica vera, op. cit. (54), 29.
103. Cf. Stahl, De mechanismi et organismi diversitate, op. cit. (54), 17.
104. F. Hartmann, 'Die LEIBNIZ-STAHL-Korrespondenz als Dialog zwischen monadischer und dualistisch-"psycho-somatischer" Anthropologie', in Georg Ernst Stahl (1659-1734) in wissenschaftshistorischer Sicht. Leopoldina-Meeting am 29, und 30. Oktober 1998 in Halle (S.) (ed. D. von Engelhardt und A. Gierer), Halle (Saale), 2000, 97-124 (Acta Historica Leopoldina 30).
105. Leibniz, in Gerhardt, Georg Ernst Stahl (1659-1734) in Wissenschaftshistorischer Sicht. Leopoldina-Meeting Am 29, und 30. Oktober 1998 in Halle (S.) op. cit. (35), ii, 126;
106. Georg Ernst Stahl (1659-1734) in Wissenschaftshistorischer Sicht. Leopoldina-Meeting Am 29, und 30. Oktober 1998 in Halle (S.) v, 214
107. and Georg Ernst Stahl (1659-1734) in Wissenschaftshistorischer Sicht. Leopoldina-Meeting Am 29, und 30. Oktober 1998 in Halle (S.) vi, 42.
108. Duchesneau, Hartmann and Carvallo have discussed the differences between Leibniz's and Stahl's theories of organic order: F. Duchesneau, 'Leibniz and Stahl: divergences sur le concept d'organisme', Studia Leibnitiana (1995), 27, 185-212;
109. Hartmann, Studia Leibnitiana op. cit. (63);
110. and S. Carvallo, La controverse entre Stahl et Leibniz sur la vie, l'organisme et le mixte, Paris, 2004.
111. For Wolff's ontology and physiology see T. Cheung, 'Ontologie und Physiologie bei Christian Wolff (1679-1754)', Verhandlungen zur Geschichte und Theorie der Biologie (2004), 10, 263-81.
112. C. J. Wolff, 'Von dem Begriff der Gesundheit (I)', in Gesammelte kleine philosophische Schriften welche besonders zu der Naturlehre und den damit verwandten Wissenschaften nehmlich der Meß- und Arzney-Kunst gehören ... (ed. J. Ecole), reprint, Hildesheim and New York, 1981 (first published Halle, 1736), 334-77, 349 (3, 'belebten Cörpers') and 355 (5, 'lebendiger Körper').
113. Ludovici, the main editor of Volumes 19-68, wrote a long article on Wolff's philosophy in the dictionary and also published a book with the title Ausführlicher Entwurf einer vollständigen Historie der Wolffischen Philosophie in three volumes (1737-8).
114. Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon aller Wissenschafften und Künste, welche bishero durch menschlichen Verstand und Witz erfunden und verbessert worden (ed. J. A. Franckenstein, P. D. Longolius and C. G. Ludovici), 69 vols., Halle and Leipzig, 1732-54, x, c. 1866. Adelung's Grammatisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch of 1777, however, only carried a short article about the word 'Organ', and no entry for the word 'organism'.
115. Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch (ed. O. Basler), 7 vols., Berlin, 1913-88, ii, 267.
116. Magdeleine de Saint-Agy employs the word organisme in the last volume (1845) of the Histoire des sciences naturelles. Cf. G. Cuvier and M. de Saint-Agy, Histoire des sciences naturelles, depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, chez tous les peuples connus, 5 vols., Paris, 1841-5, v (1845), 313-435.
117. Only the second and a part of the third volume relied on Cuvier's lectures on the history of science at the Collège de France. Cf. Cuvier and Saint-Agy, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, Depuis Leur Origine Jusqu'à Nos Jours, Chez Tous les Peuples Connus ibid., 434.
118. For the influence of Stahl's theory on such German naturalists and philosophers as Johann Christian Reill and Schelling see B. Gottlieb, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, Depuis Leur Origine Jusqu'à Nos Jours, Chez Tous les Peuples Connus op. cit. (53), 488-502.
119. For a discussion of the notion of organismic order in Kant's posthumous writings see C. Debru, 'L'Introduction du concept d'organisme dans la philosophie kantienne: 1790-1803', Archives de Philosophie (1980), 43, 487-514;
120. R. Low, Philosophie des Lebendigen - Der Begriff des Organischen bei Kant, sein Grund und seine Aktualität, Frankfurt am Main, 1980, 272;
121. K. Düsing, Die Teleologie in Kants Weltbegriff, 2nd edn, Bonn, 1986 (1st edn 1968), 164 ff.;
122. D. Outram, 'Uncertain legislator: Cuvier's laws of nature', Journal of the History of Biology (1986), 19, 323-68;
123. and V. Mathieu, Kants Opus postumum (ed. G. Held), Frankfurt am Main, 1989, 226 and 235-8.
124. I. Kant, Akademie-Ausgabe. Kant's gesammelte Schriften (ed. Königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften), Berlin and Leipzig, 1902-, xxi, 187
125. and Akademie-Ausgabe. Kant's Gesammelte Schriften xxii, 78. Kant normally used compounds such as organische Körper (cf. Critique of Judgment, 65, 73, 75, 80, 81, 82), organisierte Körper (cf. Critique of Judgment, 8), organisierte Produkte (cf. Critique of Judgment, 65, 67, 75), organisierte Geschöpfe (cf. Critique of Judgment, 64), organisierte Naturdinge (cf. Critique of Judgment, 82) and organische Naturwesen (cf. Critique of Judgment, 78).
126. J. G. Fichte, 'Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre als Handschrift für seine Zuhörer' [1794], in idem, Fichtes Werke (ed. H. Fichte), 11 vols., Berlin, 1971, i, 83-328.
127. F. W. J. Schelling, Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie (1799)
128. in F. W. J. Schelling, idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart and Augsburg, 1856-61, Section I, i, 193-4.
129. For the notion of process in Schelling's natural philosophy see O. Breidbach, ' Prozessualität als systematische Kategorie in der Naturphilosophie Schellings', in Una Mirada a la filosofía de Schelling (ed. A. L. Coello), Vigo, 1999, 147-60.
130. For the use of the Greek term cf. Aristoteles' species-theory in De Anima, 429a, 17-18, and Galen's model of organic assimilation in De usu partium, Book I, Chapters 8 and 11. English physiologists and anatomists also used the term. Cf. Grew, Anatomy of Plants, op. cit. (23), 3;
131. and Evelyn, Anatomy of Plants op. cit. (17), 4th edn, 2001 reprint, 263.
132. For the French context see H.-J. Rheinberger, 'Aspekte des Bedeutungswandels im Begriff organismischer Ähnlichkeit vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert", History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences (1986), 8, 237-50.
133. T. Cheung, 'Charles Bonnets allgemeine Systemtheorie organismischer Ordnung', History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences (2004), 26, 177-207.
134. Schelling, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences op. cit. (75), Section I, iii, 19.
135. Schelling, System der gesamten Philosophie (1804)
136. in Schelling idem, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. K. F. A. Schelling), 14 vols., Stuttgart and Augsburg, 1856-61, Section I, vi, 301.
137. See also Schelling, Von der Weltseele. Eine Hypothese der Höhern Physik zur Erklärung des allgemeinen Organismus (1798), in ibid., iii.
138. H. Böhme, Natur und Subjekt, Frankfurt am Main, 1988, 55-64 and 192-8.
139. Stahl referred to the microcosm-macrocosm relation at the start of his doctoral thesis of 1684: Stahl, Natur und Subjekt op. cit. (55), [1].
140. For the influence of Paracelsus and van Helmont on Stahl's notion of living bodies see J. Pagel, Einführung in die Geschichte der Medizin: fünfundzwanzig akademische Vorlesungen, 2nd edn, Berlin, 1915 (1st edn 1898), 301;
141. and Gottlieb, Einführung in Die Geschichte der Medizin: Fünfundzwanzig Akademische Vorlesungen, 2nd Edn op. cit. (53), 32.
142. Grew also had contacts with iatrochemists. From 1663 to 1671 he studied medicine and natural philosophy at the University of Leiden, where one of his teachers was the Paracelsian chemist Franciscus de le Boë. See M. Hunter, Establishung the New Science: The Experience of the Early Royal Society, Woodbridge, 1989, 275;
143. and LeFanu, Establishung the New Science: The Experience of the Early Royal Society op. cit. (22), 2-3.
144. Humboldt used the word 'organism' in Ideen zu einer Physiognomik der Gewächse, Tübingen, 1807, 18, a lecture that was given in 1805 in Berlin. The word does not occur in Agustin-Pyrame de Candolle's writings.
145. In the Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, Herder used the expression Organismus der Natur to explain the 'uniformity' (Gleichförmigkeit) of the inner order of living bodies and the outer order of nature: 'der gleichförmige Organismus der Natur von Innen und Außen, wenn man ihn recht bestimmt, bleibt in allen Bildungen des Lebendigen unverkennbar'. J. G. Herder, Sämmtliche Werke (ed. B. Suphan), 33 vols., Berlin, 1877-1913, xiii, 116.
146. See also G. W. F. Hegel, Jenaer kritische Schriften (1801)
147. in G. W. F. Hegel, idem, Hauptwerke in sechs Bänden, 6 vols., Darmstadt, 1999, i, 407;
148. and G. W. F. Hegel, idem, Phänomenologie des Geistes (1807), in ibid., i, 155.
149. Ludwig Borne (1808) compares the human 'organism' with the 'organism' of a state: ' Man kann sich daher den menschlichen sowie jeden andern Organismus als einen Staat vorstellen, worin zwar sämtliche verschiedene Glieder einer gemeinschaftlichen Lebensregel unterworfen sind, wo aber jedes für sich wieder seine eigentümlichen Gesetze hat, die es befolgt'. Cf. L. Börne, 'Von dem Gelde' (1808), in idem, Sämtliche Werke (ed. I. and P. Rippmann), 5 vols., Düsseldorf, 1964-8, i, 74.
150. The word Organismus appears further in many other German texts of this period, for example in the writings of Friedrich Matthison (1795), Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland (1797) and Adolph Eschenmayer (1799). For exact references see Deutsches Wörterbuch (ed. J. Grimm and W. Grimm), 33 vols., Leipzig, 1854-1971, vii, c. 1339-40;
151. and Deutsches Fremdwörterbuch, op. cit. (69), ii, 267.
152. After Johann Georg Hamann and Johann Wilhelm Ritter had referred to the notion of 'living language' (lebende Sprache), Wilhelm von Humboldt frequently used the expression Organismus der Sprache. See J. G. Hamann, 'Beylage zum 37sten Stück der Königsbergschen gelehrten und politischen Zeitung' [1772], in idem, Sämtliche Werke (ed. J. Nadler), 6 vols., Vienna, 1957, iii, 22;
153. J. W. Ritter, Fragmente aus dem Nachlasse eines jungen Physikers. Ein Taschenbuch für Freunde der Natur, Hanau/Main, 1984 (reprint; first published 1810), 270-7;
154. and W. v. Humboldt, 'Ueber das vergleichende Sprachstudium in Beziehung auf die verschiedenen Epochen der Sprachentwicklung' [1820], in Wilhelm von Humboldt. Über die Sprache (ed. J. Trabant), Tübingen and Basel, 1994, 16-17.
155. L. Oken, Die Zeugung, Bamberg and Würzburg, 1805.
156. L. Oken, Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie, 3 vols., Jena, 1809-11, ii (1810), Section 817, 10. Cf. ibid., Section 831,12: 'Ein Organismus ist ein Individuum.' Oken had already used the word Organismus in 1802 (Grundriss der Naturphilosophie der Theorie der Sinne, mit der darauf gegründeten Classification der Thiere) and 1805 (Abriss des Systems der Biologie. Zum Behufe seiner Vorlesungen).
157. Oken, Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie op. cit. (85), ii, Section 817, 5-9.
158. For further references see G. Gusdorf, Le Romantisme, 3rd edn, Paris, 1993 (1st edn 2 vols., 1984), 143-70.
159. Goethe criticizes Oken for his ontological claims and romantic mysticism. Cf. S. Schmitt, 'Type et métamorphose dans la morphologie de Goethe, entre classicisme et romantisme', Revue d'histoire des sciences (2001), 54, 495-521.
160. J. W. von Goethe, 'Zur Morphologie', Volume 1 (1817), in idem, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Hamburger Ausgabe (ed. D. Kuhn and R. Wankmüller), 14 vols., 1988, München, 1988, xiii, 56 and 58. The passages are part of an introduction that is dated Jena 1807 ('Die Absicht eingeleitet'). Goethe's Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen was published in 1790.
161. C. G. Carus, 'Grundzüge der allgemeinen Naturbetrachtung (Einleitung zu den noch ungedrucktem Werke über die Ur-Theile des Schalen- und Knochengerüstes von D. C. G. Carus)', in J.W. Goethe, Zur Morphologie, Volume 2, Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1823, 84-95, 87.
162. Carus later systematically employed the word 'organism' in Psyche, Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Seele, Pforzheim, 1846.
163. F. L. Augustin, Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf neuere Naturphilosophie und comparative Physiologie, Berlin, 1809, i, 65-6. Only one volume was published.
164. G. F. Treviranus, Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur für Naturforscher und Aerzte, 6 vols., Göttingen, 1802-22, i, 37, 68;
165. C. F. Burdach, Die Physiologie, Leipzig, 1810, 67-72;
166. and C. F. Leupoldt, Die gesammte Anthropologie neu begründet durch allgemeine Biosophie und als zeitgemäße Grundlage der Medicin im Geiste germanisch-christlicher Wissenschaft, Erlangen, 1834, 56-7.
167. C. F. Kielmeyer, Gesammelte Schriften (ed. Fritz-Heinz Holler and J. Schuster), Berlin, 1938, 20 and 52-7.
168. Kielmeyer (Gesammelte Schriften ibid., 111) also sketched an 'allgemeine Naturlehre des Lebens und des organismus'.
169. For a detailed comparison between Schelling's and Kielmeyer's Naturlehre see T. Bach, Biologie and Philosophie bei C. F. Kielmeyer and F. W.J. Schelling, Stuttgart and Bad Cannstatt, 2001 (Schellingiana 12).
170. C. F. Kielmeyer, Biologie and Philosophie Bei C. F. Kielmeyer and F. W.J. Schelling op. cit. (93), 21; 'differences, that the organism - examined in its variability-, and especially its very materiality, reveals of itself at different times, that is, changes that the organism undergoes, suffers or carries out during its existence, and which constitute its life'. This passage, written between 1790 and 1793, was part of Kielmeyer's plan to write a book on the anatomy and zoology of animals.
171. See also Biologie and Philosophie Bei C. F. Kielmeyer and F. W.J. Schelling ibid., 63-4 ('Über die Verhältnisse der organischen Kräfte untereinander in der Reihe der verschiedenen Organisationen, die Gesetze und Folgen dieser Verhältnisse', 1793).
172. Cf. S. C. Lucae, Entwurf eines Systems der medicinischen Anthropologie. Zum Gebrauche beim Studium der Natur- und Heilkunde des menschlichen Organismus. Erster Band. Geschichte des vegetativen Lebens im Individuum, Frankfurt am Main, 1816, 1: 'Den Inbegriff einer gewissen Anzahl zusammengesetzter, mit einander verknüpfter, gegenseitig auf einander wirkender, und durch ihr gemeinsames Wirken einander thätig und wirksam erhaltender Apparate, welche gerade durch ihre gegenseitige harmonische Zusammenstimmung einem allgemeinen großen Zweck, nämlich der Erhaltung des Ganzen, entgegenstreben, bezeichnet die Naturkunde durch die Bennung Organismus.'
173. For his notion of phenomena of life see Entwurf Eines Systems der Medicinischen Anthropologie. Zum Gebrauche Beim Studium der Natur- und Heilkunde des Menschlichen Organismus. Erster Band. Geschichte des Vegetativen Lebens im Individuum ibid., 26.
174. Cf. Kucharczik, Entwurf Eines Systems der Medicinischen Anthropologie. Zum Gebrauche Beim Studium der Natur- und Heilkunde des Menschlichen Organismus. Erster Band. Geschichte des Vegetativen Lebens im Individuum op. cit. (4), 22.
175. Cuvier also did not use the word 'biology'. For Cuvier's notion of 'organisation' see T. Cheung, Die Organisation des Lebendigen. Die Entstehung des biologischen Organismusbegriffs bei Cuvier, Leibniz und Kant, Frankfurt am Main, 2000.
176. In 1858 Rudolf Virchow still used the expression Organismus eines Knochens. See R. Virchow, Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre, Berlin, 1858, 27 (second lecture).
177. J.-B. de Lamarck, Système analytique des connaissances positives de l'homme, Paris, 1988 (reprint; first published 1820), 163-6.
178. An earlier reference is to be found in idem, Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants (1802) on the very helpful web page http://www.crhst.cnrs.fr/i-corpus/lamarck, based on a misspelling (organisme vitale instead of orgasme vitale).
179. Cf. idem, Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants, Paris, 1986 (reprint; first published 1802), 57.
180. J.-B. de Lamarck, Système analytique, op. cit. (99), 163-6. In a similar way, Schiller distinguishes in his second medical dissertation (1780) between three 'organisms' (Organismus der Seelenwirkungen, Organismus der Ernährung and Organismus der Zeugung): 'Diese drei Organismi in den genauesten Lokalund Realzusammenhang gebracht, bilden den menschlichen Körper.'
181. Cf. Friedrich Schiller, 'Versuch über den Zusammenhang der thierischen Natur des Menschen mit seiner Geistigen', in idem, Schillers Werke. Nationalausgabe (ed. B. von Wiese and H. Koppen), Weimar, 1943-, xx (1962), Part 1, 41-3.
182. Milne-Edwards did not use the word 'organism' in the Histoire naturelle des crustacés (1834-40) and the Elémens de zoologie (1834). He employed it only in the last section of the last (third) volume of the second edition of the Elémens (1843). Like the last chapter of the Histoire naturelle des crustacés, this section focuses on the geographic distribution of animals and their relation to specific environments or milieux. Cf. H. Milne-Edwards, Elémens de zoologie ou leçons sur l'anatomie, la physiologie, la classification et les mœurs des animaux, 2nd edn, 3 vols., Paris, 1841-3, iii (1843), 338.
183. J. Liebig, Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie, Braunschweig, 1840.
184. D. de Blainville, Cours de physiologie générale et comparée, professé à la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, publié par les soins de M. le Docteur Hollard, 2 vols., Brussels, 1829, i, 18-19 (first lecture). A second edition in three volumes was published in 1833.
185. Blainville, Cours de Physiologie Générale et Comparée, Professé À la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, Publié Par les Soins de M. le Docteur Hollard op. cit. (103), i, 3-4 (first lecture). Blainville uses the word organisme in the singular and in the plural throughout the whole Cours de physiologie générale et comparée. Cf. ibid., i, 3, 4, 5, 7 (first lecture), and ii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 (thirteenth lecture).
186. J. Müller, Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 2 vols., Koblenz, 1833-40, i, Prolegomena.
187. J. Müller, Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 3rd edn, 1837, 19-20. Müller refers in the same passage to Kant's definition of organic unity.
188. R. Owen, The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy. May-June, 1837 (ed. and with an introductory essay and commentary by P. R. Sloan), Chicago, 1992, 225, 230 (fifth lecture).
189. P. Sloan, in Owen, The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy. May-June, 1837 op. cit. (107), 15-39, 233-6.
190. K. v. Baer, Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. Beobachtung und Reflexion, 2 vols., Königsberg, 1828-37, i, 221-2.
191. Baer, Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. Beobachtung und Reflexion op. cit. (109), i, 200, 208.
192. Baer, Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. Beobachtung und Reflexion op. cit. (109), ii, 3 (twice), 4, 8.
193. A. Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vols., Paris, 1830-42, iii (1838), 40th lesson, 269, note 1.
194. A. Comte, Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. Beobachtung und Reflexion op. cit. (112), iii (1838), 40th lesson, 269. Comte uses also the expression science biologique. Cf. Comte, iii (1838), 277 and 284.
195. Comte, Cours de Philosophie Positive op. cit. (112), iii (1838), 289, 290, 291, 292, 302, 303, 304, 308 and 310.
196. Bernard already represented Magendie at the Collège from 1848.
197. C. Bernard, Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale, Brussels, 1965 (reprint; first published Paris, 1865), 102, 106, 107, 108.
198. C. Bernard, Leçons de physiologie expérimentale appliquée à la médecine, 2 vols., Paris, 1855-6, i, 9-10
199. and C. Bernard, Leçons de Physiologie Expérimentale Appliquée À la Médecine ii, 1-2.
200. In On the Origin of Species, published shortly after Bernard's Leçons in 1859, Darwin employed the word 'organism' in the first four chapters, in which he focuses on the importance of the 'relation of organism to organism', and, more frequently, in the chapters on the geological record and the geographical distribution of species. He normally uses the expressions 'organic being' and 'individual'. See C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species, Cambridge, MA and London, 1964 (facsimile of London, 1859 edn), 9 (Chapter 1), 50 (Chapter 2), 60 and 65 (Chapter 3), 103-4 (Chapter 4) and Chapters 9-12. The term does not occur in Chapters 5-8.
201. The full title is Dictionnaire universel français et latin, vulgairement appelé dictionnaire de Trévoux. Contenant la Signification & la Définition des mots de l'une & de l'autre Langue; avec leurs différens usages; les termes propres de chaque Etat & de chaque Profession; La Description de toutes les choses naturelles & artificielles, leurs espèces, leurs propriétés: L'Explication de tout ce que renferment les Sciences & les Arts, soit Libéraux, soit Méchaniques, &c. Nouvelle Édition. Corrigée et considérablement augmentée, 6th edn, 8 vols., Paris, 1771, vi, 389: 'Organisme. S. m. Qui appartient à l'organisation des corps, la qualité d'être organisé. Tout est organique dans la nature, le règne minéral, autant que le végétal & l'animal, quoique dans un ordre différent de ce que les Philosophes & les Chimistes ont imaginé. Cet organisme consiste d'abord en des corpuscules d'une petitesse infinie, dont les figures sont géométriques, mais des plus simples. BOURGUET, Lettr. Phil.'
202. Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles ... (ed. F.-G. Levrault et al.), 60 vols, (without supplements and engravings), Paris and Strasbourg, 1804-30, xxxvi (1825);
203. and Dictionnaire universel d'histoire naturelle (ed. C. D'Orbigny et al.), 13 vols., Paris, 1841-9, ix (1847).
204. Dictionnaire pittoresque d'Histoire naturelle et des phé nomènes de la Nature (ed. F.-E. Guèrin), 9 vols., Paris, 1833-9, vi, 408: 'Organisme: le mot, pour la plupart des physiologistes modernes, est un synonyme d'organisation; il sert plus spécialement à désigner l'ensemble des lois qui régissent les êtres organisés, animaux ou végétaux. ' The article is attributed to Paul Gentil.
205. Littré and Robin distinguished between 'simple or composed organisms' (as humans, oak trees, horses, eggs or seeds), that can exist as individual entities, and 'organized bodies' that represent 'anatomical parts' (for example muscle fibres or cells) of 'organisms'. See Dictionnaire de médecine, de chirurgie, de pharmacie, des sciences accessoires, de l'art vétérinaire et des sciences qui s'y rapportent (ed. E. Littré and Ch. Robin), 12th edn, Paris, 1865, 1056.
206. Dictionnaire de l'Académie française, 7 edn., 2 vols., Paris, 1878 (1st edn 1694), ii, 316.