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Volumn 39, Issue 124, 2001, Pages

Rereading Priestley: Science at the intersection of theology and politics

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EID: 33747782857     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (5)

References (280)
  • 1
    • 33749637119 scopus 로고
    • John Towill Rutt (ed.), London
    • Popular poem, cited in an editorial footnote to Priestley's An appeal to the public on the subject of the riots in Birmingham (1791), in John Towill Rutt (ed.), The theological and miscellaneous works of Joseph Priestley (London, 1817-32;
    • (1817) The Theological and Miscellaneous Works of Joseph Priestley
  • 2
    • 0347343674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • hereafter cited as n †
    • hereafter cited as Works), xix, 356-57, n †. The poem reflects the popular beliefs that Priestley secreted gunpowder under a church so as to blow it up during a sermon, and that barrels of gunpowder were actually found in his laboratory during the "Priestley Riots". The accusation echoed the events surrounding the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.
    • Works , vol.19 , pp. 356-357
  • 3
    • 0346713156 scopus 로고
    • Familiar letters addressed to the inhabitants of Birmingham...
    • Joseph Priestley, Familiar letters addressed to the inhabitants of Birmingham ... (1790), in Works, xix, 143.
    • (1790) Works , vol.19 , pp. 143
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 4
    • 0347973893 scopus 로고
    • The present state of Europe compared with ancient prophecies...
    • Joseph Priestley, The present state of Europe compared with ancient prophecies ... (1794), in Works, xv, 521-4.
    • (1794) Works , vol.15 , pp. 521-524
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 5
    • 33749644695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, in Works, Ibid., 525. The suppression of these and other popular organizations began right around the time Priestley was preparing to leave England; the British authorities had decided that the disturbances inspired by the French Revolution as well as by the reform movement in England had gotten out of hand.
    • Works , pp. 525
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 6
    • 0347343685 scopus 로고
    • The impact of the French Revolution on English science: A case history in three dichotomies
    • Paris
    • For the attacks on the Dissenters and their organizations, see Wilson L. Scott, "The impact of the French Revolution on English science: A case history in three dichotomies", in Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, à l'occasion de son soixante-dixième anniversaire (Paris, 1964), 475-95.
    • (1964) Mélanges Alexandre Koyré, à l'Occasion de Son Soixante-dixième Anniversaire , pp. 475-495
    • Scott, W.L.1
  • 8
    • 0347343683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Evil man: The Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley: A study of his life and work from 1733 to 1773 by Robert Schofield
    • 21 May
    • "Evil man" is Dr Johnson's coinage. For this and other assessments of Priestley, see Simon Schaffer, "Evil man: The Enlightenment of Joseph Priestley: A study of his life and work from 1733 to 1773 by Robert Schofield", London review of books, 21 May 1998, 22;
    • (1998) London Review of Books , pp. 22
    • Schaffer, S.1
  • 10
    • 0346082600 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, the millennium, and the French Revolution
    • Clarke Garrett, "Joseph Priestley, the millennium, and the French Revolution", Journal of the history of ideas, xxxiv (1973), 51-66.
    • (1973) Journal of the History of Ideas , vol.34 , pp. 51-66
    • Garrett, C.1
  • 11
    • 84871828425 scopus 로고
    • Eighteenth-century science and radical social theory: The case of Joseph Priestley's scientific liberalism
    • Isaac Kramnick rightly crowned Priestley the "leading radical intellectual of his era" (Isaac Kramnick, "Eighteenth-century science and radical social theory: The case of Joseph Priestley's scientific liberalism", Journal of British studies, xxv (1986), 1-30, p. 4).
    • (1986) Journal of British Studies , vol.25 , pp. 1-30
    • Kramnick, I.1
  • 12
    • 0347343691 scopus 로고
    • Leeds
    • See also Henry Schroder, Annals of Yorkshire from the earliest period to the present time (Leeds, 1851-52), i, 346. The letters that Rutt published in Priestley's autobiography do not give a full sense of his connections with the leaders of the opposition to the British government. Similarly, his biography plays down this part of his life. But other sources confirm that he regularly dined with and met such figures as Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy, John Adams and many other American rebels and leaders when they came to visit England. Similarly he was in contact with Richard Price, Theophilus Lindsey, John Jebb, Michael Dodson and many others who were active in British politics.
    • (1851) Annals of Yorkshire from the Earliest Period to the Present Time , vol.1 , pp. 346
    • Schroder, H.1
  • 13
    • 84922560820 scopus 로고
    • ed. by Herbert McLachlan Manchester
    • Theophilus Lindsey, Letters of Theophilus Lindsey, ed. by Herbert McLachlan (Manchester, 1920) is anecdotal but provides a sharply defined picture of the activities of Priestley and his radical friends during the 1770s, 1780s and 1790s (see esp. chs 3-5).
    • (1920) Letters of Theophilus Lindsey
    • Lindsey, T.1
  • 14
  • 16
    • 85049443447 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Life and correspondence
    • Priestley to Condorcet, 30 July 1771, in
    • Priestley to Condorcet, 30 July 1771, in Life and correspondence, Works, i, Part 2, 129.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.2 PART , pp. 129
  • 17
    • 33749606606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Life and correspondence, Parts 1 and 2, constitute the first volume of Priestley's Works. They contain the original autobiography of Priestley (up to 1768) and an invaluable selection of his letters.
    • Life and Correspondence , Issue.1-2 PART
  • 19
    • 84970411423 scopus 로고
    • Priestley's questions: An historiographic survey
    • For two excellent historiographical essays, see Schaffer, idem, "Priestley's questions: An historiographic survey", History of science, xxii (1984), 151-83;
    • (1984) History of Science , vol.22 , pp. 151-183
    • Schaffer1
  • 20
    • 0017941438 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, 'aerial philosopher': Metaphysics and methodology in Priestley's chemical thought, from 1762 to 1781
    • John G. McEvoy, "Joseph Priestley, 'aerial philosopher': metaphysics and methodology in Priestley's chemical thought, from 1762 to 1781", Parts 1-3, Ambix, xxv (1978), 1-55, 93-116, 153-75
    • (1978) Ambix , vol.25 , Issue.1-3 PART , pp. 1-55
    • McEvoy, J.G.1
  • 21
    • 0346734037 scopus 로고
    • Part 4, Ambix, xxvi (1979), 16-38.
    • (1979) Ambix , vol.26 , Issue.4 PART , pp. 16-38
  • 22
    • 0141946614 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Among the early studies that slight Priestley's scientific accomplishments are Thomas E. Thorpe, Joseph Priestley (New York, 1906)
    • (1906) Joseph Priestley
    • Thorpe, T.E.1
  • 24
    • 0347973890 scopus 로고
    • The beginnings of the scientific career of Joseph Priestley
    • An early study of Priestley that does justice to his scientific knowledge is W. Cameron Walker, "The beginnings of the scientific career of Joseph Priestley", Isis, xxi (1934), 81-97.
    • (1934) Isis , vol.21 , pp. 81-97
    • Walker, W.C.1
  • 25
    • 0346713153 scopus 로고
    • The scientific background of Joseph Priestley
    • Recent studies that attempt to give Priestley his due include Robert E. Schofield, "The scientific background of Joseph Priestley", Annals of science, xiii (1957), 148-63;
    • (1957) Annals of Science , vol.13 , pp. 148-163
    • Schofield, R.E.1
  • 26
    • 0014057850 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, natural philosopher
    • Robert E. Schofield, idem, "Joseph Priestley, natural philosopher", Ambix, xiv (1967), 1-15;
    • (1967) Ambix , vol.14 , pp. 1-15
    • Schofield, R.E.1
  • 28
    • 0014829787 scopus 로고
    • Priestley's library of scientific books: A new list
    • Cf. Eric Robinson, "Priestley's library of scientific books: A new list", Studies in history and philosophy of science, i (1970), 145-60;
    • (1970) Studies in History and Philosophy of Science , vol.1 , pp. 145-160
    • Robinson, E.1
  • 29
    • 84972033804 scopus 로고
    • A practical perspective on Joseph Priestley as a pneumatic chemist
    • Maurice Crosland, "A practical perspective on Joseph Priestley as a pneumatic chemist", The British journal for the history of science, xvi (1983), 223-38;
    • (1983) The British Journal for the History of Science , vol.16 , pp. 223-238
    • Crosland, M.1
  • 30
    • 0347973887 scopus 로고
    • Priestley's laboratory and library and other of his effects
    • Douglas McKie, "Priestley's laboratory and library and other of his effects", Notes and records of the Royal Society of London, xii (1957), 114-36;
    • (1957) Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London , vol.12 , pp. 114-136
    • McKie, D.1
  • 31
    • 0346764770 scopus 로고
    • Chemistry, materialism and theology in the work of Joseph Priestley
    • Henri Laboucheix, "Chemistry, materialism and theology in the work of Joseph Priestley", Price-Priestley newsletter, i (1977), 31-48. Lavoisier's Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (1789) was translated into English and published in Edinburgh (Elements of chemistry, in a new systematic order, containing all the modern discoveries (1790)) within a year of its original publication, and promptly won ardent support. (Probably Lavoisier's most vocal partisan in Scotland was Joseph Black (1728-99).) It should be mentioned that Priestley had a running debate with the Scottish Common Sense school; the school's warm reception of Lavoisier's new chemistry did not predispose Priestley to give it a fair hearing.
    • (1977) Price-Priestley Newsletter , vol.1 , pp. 31-48
    • Laboucheix, H.1
  • 32
    • 0347973886 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley: Theology, physics, and metaphysics
    • Robert E. Schofield, "Joseph Priestley: Theology, physics, and metaphysics", Enlightenment and dissent, ii (1983), 69-81, pp. 71, 79. (Enlightenment and dissent is the successor to Price-Priestley newsletter, a valuable source of information on Priestley.)
    • (1983) Enlightenment and Dissent , vol.2 , pp. 69-81
    • Schofield, R.E.1
  • 33
    • 0346082597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley and the physicalist tradition in British Chemistry
    • Hiebert et al., ref. 11
    • Schofield developed this argument in his "Joseph Priestley and the physicalist tradition in British Chemistry", in Hiebert et al., ", Enlightenment and dissent, op. cit. (ref. 11), 92-117.
    • Enlightenment and Dissent , pp. 92-117
  • 34
    • 0037766495 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, the theory of oxidation and the nature of matter
    • idem
    • See also idem, "Joseph Priestley, the theory of oxidation and the nature of matter", Journal of the history of ideas, xxv (1964), 285-94.
    • (1964) Journal of the History of Ideas , vol.25 , pp. 285-294
  • 36
    • 0347343675 scopus 로고
    • 'Matter in a nut-shell': Newton's Opticks and eighteenth-century chemistry
    • Arnold Thackray holds similar views. See his "'Matter in a nut-shell': Newton's Opticks and eighteenth-century chemistry", Ambix, xxv (1968), 29-53.
    • (1968) Ambix , vol.25 , pp. 29-53
  • 37
    • 33749648054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • Cf. Crosland, Ambix, op. cit. (ref. 11), 223-38.
    • Ambix , pp. 223-238
    • Crosland1
  • 38
    • 0346713152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 10
    • McEvoy, Ambix, op. cit. (ref. 10), Part 1, 1-5 provides an analysis of early twentieth-century scholarship on Priestley. McEvoy includes among the scholars who viewed Priestley's science as backward and inadequate F. Jeffrey, Sir P. Hartog and A. N. Meldrum.
    • Ambix , Issue.1 PART , pp. 1-5
    • McEvoy1
  • 39
    • 84975027336 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley, natural philosopher: Some comments on Professor Schofield's views
    • For a discussion of Schofield's work, see John G. McEvoy, "Joseph Priestley, natural philosopher: Some comments on Professor Schofield's views", Ambix, xv (1968), 115-23.
    • (1968) Ambix , vol.15 , pp. 115-123
    • McEvoy, J.G.1
  • 40
    • 84925920329 scopus 로고
    • Electricity, knowledge, and the nature of progress in Priestley's thought
    • John G. McEvoy, "Electricity, knowledge, and the nature of progress in Priestley's thought", The British journal for the history of science, xii (1979), 1-30, pp. 1-3, 18-24;
    • (1979) The British Journal for the History of Science , vol.12 , pp. 1-30
    • McEvoy, J.G.1
  • 43
    • 0346298734 scopus 로고
    • Causes and laws, powers and principles: The metaphysical foundations of Priestley's concept of phlogiston
    • R. G. W. Anderson and Christopher Lawrence (eds), London
    • John G. McEvoy, "Causes and laws, powers and principles: The metaphysical foundations of Priestley's concept of phlogiston", in R. G. W. Anderson and Christopher Lawrence (eds), Science, medicine, and dissent: Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) (London, 1987), 55-71, p. 66.
    • (1987) Science, Medicine, and Dissent: Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) , pp. 55-71
    • McEvoy, J.G.1
  • 46
    • 0003945869 scopus 로고
    • Chicago
    • A close examination of this issue can make even Thomas Kuhn look like a Whiggish historian, for his emphasis on the incommensurability of phlogiston and oxygen makes him look like an advocate of the idea of progressive revolutions in science (see Thomas S. Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1970), 52-56).
    • (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd Edn , pp. 52-56
    • Kuhn, T.S.1
  • 49
    • 0347973842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 17
    • While McCann, in his Chemistry transformed (ref. 17), deals with such sociological issues as academic communities in Edinburgh, London and Paris, he also looks (in ch. 3) at the internal development of scientific theories to argue that theoretical anomalies and inadequacies brought about the Chemical Revolution. In another important study of eighteenth-century materialism.
    • Chemistry Transformed
    • McCann1
  • 50
    • 0347973844 scopus 로고
    • Princeton
    • Aram Vartanian argues that "the sources and meanings alike of scientific naturalism in the eighteenth century are ... most intimately, although by no means exclusively, discoverable in the complex of Cartesian thought" (Aram Vartanian, Diderot and Descartes: A study of scientific naturalism in the Enlightenment (Princeton, 1953), 292).
    • (1953) Diderot and Descartes: A Study of Scientific Naturalism in the Enlightenment , pp. 292
    • Vartanian, A.1
  • 51
    • 0003442824 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Roger Joseph Boscovich (1711-87) was a Jesuit whose work Priestley probably discovered over the course of his reading for History and present state of discoveries relating to vision, light and colours (London, 1772; hereafter cited as History of optics). A mathematician, an astronomer and the author of Theoria naturalis philosophiae (1758; English translation 1763), Boscovich is considered the modernizer of atomic theory. He never subscribed to Priestley's materialism. Boscovich revised Newton's corpuscular theory of matter and essentially saw the world as made up of tiny billiard balls. He reduced the attributes of matter (impenetrability, solidity, extension) to forces, which permitted a better accounting for an array of phenomena. Boscovich's atom had no extension and could not be considered matter, since it was strictly the centre point of force. See Leslie P. Williams, Michael Faraday: A biography (New York, 1965), 73-80;
    • (1965) Michael Faraday: A Biography , pp. 73-80
    • Williams, L.P.1
  • 53
    • 25044440059 scopus 로고
    • Physics and the deity: The ideas of R. Boscovich and J. Priestley
    • cf. Karis Müller, "Physics and the deity: The ideas of R. Boscovich and J. Priestley", Enlightenment and dissent, xii (1993), 49-63.
    • (1993) Enlightenment and Dissent , vol.12 , pp. 49-63
    • Müller, K.1
  • 61
    • 33749599472 scopus 로고
    • ref. 10
    • "In view of the obvious inadequacies in the orthodox view of Priestley's scientific thought, [my] study will provide a new historiography for Priestley scholarship that seeks to replace the appearance of a wayward, and somewhat schizoid mentality, by the reality of Priestley's considerable synoptic powers.... The categories of Priestley's thought reveals a mind with unusual synoptic power, bent on the articulation of the interconnections and ramifications of the central doctrines of his philosophy of nature." McEvoy, A scientific autobiography of Joseph Priestley, 1733-1804: Selected scientific correspondence op. cit. (ref. 10, 1978), Part 1, 5,
    • (1978) A Scientific Autobiography of Joseph Priestley, 1733-1804: Selected Scientific Correspondence , Issue.1 PART , pp. 5
    • McEvoy1
  • 65
    • 0023982719 scopus 로고
    • Utility and audience in eighteenth-century chemistry: Case studies of William Cullen and Joseph Priestley
    • For a similar criticism, see Jan V. Golinski, "Utility and audience in eighteenth-century chemistry: Case studies of William Cullen and Joseph Priestley", The British journal for the history of science, xxi (1988), 15-16.
    • (1988) The British Journal for the History of Science , vol.21 , pp. 15-16
    • Golinski, J.V.1
  • 66
    • 84996258362 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dephlogisticating the Bible: Natural philosophy and religious controversy in late Georgian Cambridge
    • Among the studies that address the larger context of eighteenth-century science are those by Jan V. Golinski and Simon Schaffer and that of Kevin C. Knox, "Dephlogisticating the Bible: Natural philosophy and religious controversy in late Georgian Cambridge", History of science, xxxiv (1996), 167-200.
    • (1996) History of Science , vol.34 , pp. 167-200
    • Golinski, J.V.1    Schaffer, S.2    Knox, K.C.3
  • 67
    • 0346713102 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley in cultural context: Philosophic spectacle, popular belief and popular politics in eighteenth-century Birmingham
    • An excellent study of the period just subsequent to that discussed here (i.e., the last decade before Priestley fled to London and then to America) is John Money, "Joseph Priestley in cultural context: Philosophic spectacle, popular belief and popular politics in eighteenth-century Birmingham", Parts 1 and 2, Enlightenment and dissent, vii (1988), 57-81;
    • (1988) Enlightenment and Dissent , vol.7 , Issue.1-2 PART , pp. 57-81
    • Money, J.1
  • 69
    • 0020351619 scopus 로고
    • The spreading of the word: New directions in the historiography of chemistry, 1600-1800
    • J. R. R. Christie and Jan V. Golinski, "The spreading of the word: New directions in the historiography of chemistry, 1600-1800", History of science, xx (1982), 256-7.
    • (1982) History of Science , vol.20 , pp. 256-257
    • Christie, J.R.R.1    Golinski, J.V.2
  • 71
    • 33749645400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • As Golinski and others have pointed out, Priestley was in touch with other scientists and joined the Lunar Society after the 1780s. I am not convinced that these connections influenced his science to the extent that the Dissenters did.
  • 73
    • 0346298717 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Priestley and the politics of spirit
    • Anderson and Lawrence (eds), ref. 16
    • See also Simon Schaffer, "Priestley and the politics of spirit", in Anderson and Lawrence (eds), Disquisitions relating to matter and spirit ... op. cit. (ref. 16), 39-53, pp. 39-40.
    • Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit... , pp. 39-53
    • Schaffer, S.1
  • 74
    • 0346082566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 19
    • On Priestley's apologetic entrance into the field of natural science, see the preface to Priestley, History of optics (ref. 19).
    • History of Optics
    • Priestley1
  • 75
    • 33749622365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 13
    • For his concerns regarding his qualifications as a chemist, see McEvoy, History of optics op. cit. (ref. 13), 116;
    • History of Optics , pp. 116
    • McEvoy1
  • 78
    • 0347343633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 68.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 68
    • Priestley1
  • 79
    • 0346082565 scopus 로고
    • London
    • I use the term 'epistemology' to designate what Priestley thought of as the foundation of human knowledge. In other words, this was what humans could expect to know and what they could not, given their constitution. An "egalitarian epistemology" is one that posits the equal capacity of all humans for understanding some things even if they are incapable of knowing others. The best formulation of this position is in Joseph Priestley, Institutes of natural and revealed religion ... (London, 1772); this was Priestley's first major publication.
    • (1772) Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion...
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 80
    • 0346082567 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 10, 2-7;
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 10
    • Priestley1
  • 81
    • 33749604570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • Thorpe, Works, op. cit. (ref. 11), 1-8.
    • Works , pp. 1-8
    • Thorpe1
  • 83
    • 0346082571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 11.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 11
    • Priestley1
  • 84
    • 0346713110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Haggerstone's curriculum was largely devoted to mathematics. Priestley thought that this Baxterian minister was "a little more liberal than the members of the congregation in which [he] was brought up" and found that conversation with his teacher "tended to undermine [his own Calvinist] prejudices" (Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 14-15).
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 14-15
    • Priestley1
  • 85
    • 0347973834 scopus 로고
    • London
    • Andrew Baxter (1686(?)-1750), was a theological and philosophical writer. Baxterians occupied a position somewhere between the Calvinists, who believed that grace was entirely predetermined by God, and the Arminians, who believed in salvation through works and faith. Arianism, named for its founder Arius, was a more radical movement that denied the tenets of Calvinism. Most Britons saw Arians as heretics since they denied the divinity and eternity of Christ. But definitions varied a lot and Priestley, who converted to Arianism himself, never denied Christ's divinity. Priestley's brother Timothy, who adopted Evangelicalism with a zeal not unlike Priestley's, delivered a eulogy at Priestley's death. In it he suggested that Priestley, who had met Haggerstone again in 1774, had said to Timothy that his mathematics teacher was the "man who brought [him] out of the dark hole of Calvinism" (Timothy Priestley, A funeral sermon occasioned by the death of ... Rev. Joseph Priestley (London, 1804), 40-41;
    • (1804) A Funeral Sermon Occasioned by the Death Of... Rev. Joseph Priestley , pp. 40-41
    • Priestley, T.1
  • 87
    • 0346082571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 11.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 11
    • Priestley1
  • 88
    • 0347973835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 37
    • According to Priestley, Walker was an excellent classical scholar and a Rational Christian. He was an Arminian and possibly subscribed to Arian beliefs, rejecting, among other things, the Calvinist notion of predestination and embracing the principle that free will played a part in the attainment of grace. Most likely Walker was one of the Socian or Arian ministers Timothy Priestley accused of having lured his brother away from Haggerstone's Baxterianism (T. Priestley, Works, op. cit. (ref. 37), 37). Socianism (named after Socianus) was an early form of Unitarianism and denied the Trinity.
    • Works , pp. 37
    • Priestley, T.1
  • 89
    • 33749639450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • William Graham objected to the doctrine of atonement (this would be a favourite target of Priestley's later on) as well as to the Trinity. Priestley saw in him a true Unitarian. He taught Priestley classical literature and made a lifelong impression on a young man who was then rather orthodox in his Christian beliefs.
  • 90
    • 33749632240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 12
    • Schofield has rightly suggested that the trauma of being turned out of his childhood chapel for heresy marked Priestley's early drift from mainstream Calvinism (Schofield, Works op. cit. (ref. 12, 1997), 1-3, 32-35).
    • (1997) Works , pp. 1-3
    • Schofield1
  • 91
    • 0347343630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 15, 18. Arianism is the doctrine that denies the true divinity of Christ. Arius (born in Egypt c. 250, died in Constantinople in 336), who articulated the basic Arian philosophy in a poetical work entitled Thalia, maintained that the Son of God had not been endowed with eternal life and was created by the Father from nothing -he was not himself godly. Arians, who first appeared in England in the middle of the seventeenth century, rejected the doctrine of the Trinity along with the divinity of Christ. Was Priestley a heretic? Definitions are tricky and it is not clear that at this point in Priestley's life he denied the divinity of Christ altogether. But in the eyes of most Britons, Arianism was a principal heresy (since it involved the denial of the divinity or eternity of Christ) and association with Arians could very well have earned Priestley this reputation.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 15
    • Priestley1
  • 92
    • 33749632245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Between 1752 and 1755 Priestley received the equivalent of a university education at Daventry. Between 1761 and 1767 he worked and taught at Warrington. Finally, after his house was burned in 1791 and up until the time of his departure for America in 1794, Priestley taught at Hackney New College, which replaced Warrington when that school shut its doors.
  • 93
    • 0141874377 scopus 로고
    • Wigan
    • P. O'Brien, Warrington Academy, 1757-1786: Its predecessors and successors (Wigan, 1989), 9-11. The laws aimed against the Nonconformists were repressive. First, the Corporation Act of 1661 required members of the government and of borough corporations to take a political oath of allegiance to the Crown and to perform the Anglican sacraments. As is well known, within two years of the Restoration those who refused were ejected from the Church. Some two thousand English and Welsh clergymen lost their positions, along with their livings. Second, the new leaders in Parliament were determined to eradicate Nonconformity root and branch. They passed the Act of Uniformity in 1662, which required all those in ecclesiastical positions to subscribe to the religious oaths earlier imposed on members of corporations, and to declare their full acceptance of the Anglican Book of common prayer (1549, final revision 1662). While this Act did not produce uniformity, it did stop Dissenters from playing an active role in their communities. And though the Conventicle Act that followed (1664) implied the acceptance of private worship by Dissenters, it created yet another obstacle to the normal operation of sectarian congregations by outlawing private religious meetings of more than five persons. Fourth, the Five Miles Act (1665) forbade ministers and preachers who had lost their licenses from coming within five miles of the parish in which they had held office, and they were barred from entering any town or corporate borough. Finally, and most importantly, the Test Act (1673, 1678) obliged office holders (civil and religious alike) to take a doctrinal oath (in addition to the political oath of loyalty to the state already required).
    • (1989) Warrington Academy, 1757-1786: Its Predecessors and Successors , pp. 9-11
    • O'Brien, P.1
  • 94
    • 60949857294 scopus 로고
    • London
    • These oaths were to be taken in open court and written proof that the office holders had recently taken communion in the Established Church was required (John P. Kenyon, The Stuart constitution, 1603-1688: Documents and commentary (London, 1976), 337, 339, 351-2, 356, 376-9, 385-6;
    • (1976) The Stuart Constitution, 1603-1688: Documents and Commentary , pp. 337
    • Kenyon, J.P.1
  • 101
    • 0347343629 scopus 로고
    • A view of the principles and conduct of the Protestant dissenters: With respect to the civil and ecclesiastical constitution of England
    • 2nd edn
    • Joseph Priestley, A view of the principles and conduct of the Protestant dissenters: With respect to the civil and ecclesiastical constitution of England, 2nd edn (1769), Works, xxii, 360.
    • (1769) Works , vol.22 , pp. 360
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 105
    • 33749645052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 43), ch. 8
    • O'Brien, Jane Austen and the clergy op. cit. (ref. 43), ch. 8. Many of the prominent Dissenters worked and taught in two or more academies.
    • Jane Austen and the Clergy
    • O'Brien1
  • 107
  • 108
    • 33749635027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 25
    • For an attempt to discuss the institutional context, see Golinski, Lives of eminent Unitarians op. cit. (ref. 25), 16-25. I am not convinced that this article's focus on scientific communities (as opposed to the religious communities that I am focusing on) can actually be justified. The only real community of this sort was the Lunar Society, which Priestley joined after he moved to Birmingham, in the 1780s. By then his positions on all the major issues were quite settled. A focus on scientific communities projects the idea of an autonomous scientific practice anachronistically onto the eighteenth century - such autonomy is hard to reconcile with Priestley's work.
    • Lives of Eminent Unitarians , pp. 16-25
    • Golinski1
  • 112
    • 0347973832 scopus 로고
    • London
    • On Doddridge, see John Stoughton, Philip Doddridge: His life and labours; a centenary memorial (London, 1851), 89-91. The attack on Doddridge followed his conviction by "the Spiritual Court" of presiding over and teaching at a Northampton seminary. He died just as the Daventry Academy first opened its doors and was succeeded by Caleb Ashworth (1722-75).
    • (1851) Philip Doddridge: His Life and Labours; a Centenary Memorial , pp. 89-91
    • Stoughton, J.1
  • 113
    • 33749620309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 12
    • A detailed review of Priestley's education at Daventry is provided in Schofield, Philip Doddridge: His life and labours; a centenary memorial op. cit. (ref. 12), 40-62. Information on Hartley is provided below. Doddridge served as a tutor to many prominent figures in the Dissenting community. Some of these figures later became close associates and friends of Priestley. An example is the Rev. John Aikin, whose family Priestley befriended at the Warrington Academy.
    • Philip Doddridge: His Life and Labours; a Centenary Memorial , pp. 40-62
    • Schofield1
  • 116
    • 0347343550 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 23.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 23
    • Priestley1
  • 117
    • 33749615630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Works, Ibid., 24. Hartley was trained for the clergy but his unwillingness to accept the Thirty-nine Articles precluded a career in the Church. Effectively a Dissenter, Hartley became a physician and philosopher and developed a psychological system known as "associationism" upon which Priestley was to draw extensively.
    • Works , pp. 24
  • 118
    • 33749626538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • "Necessarianism" should not be confused with Calvinism or predestination. It refers to a causal, material connection between all natural phenomena.
  • 119
    • 0347973824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 24-25.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 24-25
    • Priestley1
  • 120
    • 33749628794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Works, Ibid., 40.
    • Works , pp. 40
  • 121
    • 33749602949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Dictionary of national biography, s.v. "Seddon, John". With the closing of the private academies set up at Kendal and Findern (1754), Nonconformist students desperately needed a new academy; Seddon responded to that need. John Seddon had a Unitarian cousin by the same name, with whom he is sometimes confused.
  • 122
    • 33749604570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • Thorpe, Works op. cit. (ref. 11), 34.
    • Works , pp. 34
    • Thorpe1
  • 123
    • 84996204440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 43
    • Upon completing his studies in Glasgow, Seddon opened the new academy in 1757 (O'Brien, Works op. cit. (ref. 43), 45;
    • Works , pp. 45
    • O'Brien1
  • 124
    • 33749628105 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 48
    • Smith, Works op. cit. (ref. 48), 160-7).
    • Works , pp. 160-167
    • Smith1
  • 125
    • 0346713079 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commerce, industry, and the laws of Newtonian science
    • Students at the Warrington Academy also studied the three classical arts of law, medicine and divinity. Margaret C. Jacob recently illustrated the contribution of several Dissenters to the industrial culture of the eighteenth century. See her "Commerce, industry, and the laws of Newtonian science", Canadian journal of history, xxxv (2000), 275-92.
    • (2000) Canadian Journal of History , vol.35 , pp. 275-292
  • 126
    • 0009129239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 49), appendix 5
    • For a survey of student interest in the various fields of concentration, see Parker, Dissenting academies in England (ref. 49), appendix 5.
    • Dissenting Academies in England
    • Parker1
  • 127
    • 33749618066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 48
    • On the academy's curriculum, see Smith, Dissenting academies in England op. cit. (ref. 48), 166-9. The Warrington Academy was one of the first to employ more than one tutor. Furthermore, it enjoyed an institutional identity quite distinct from the Nonconformist congregation of Warrington. The academy was also one of the first at which the natural sciences were studied, as well as the first to become Arian and eventually Unitarian.
    • Dissenting Academies in England , pp. 166-169
    • Smith1
  • 128
    • 67650065247 scopus 로고
    • Revolutionary in exile: The immigration of Joseph Priestley to America, 1794-1804
    • Jenny Graham, "Revolutionary in exile: The immigration of Joseph Priestley to America, 1794-1804", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, lxxxv/2 (1995), 4.
    • (1995) Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , vol.85 , Issue.2 , pp. 4
    • Graham, J.1
  • 129
    • 0346082561 scopus 로고
    • Revolutionary philosopher: The political ideas of Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)
    • Jenny Graham, "Revolutionary philosopher: The political ideas of Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)", Part I, Enlightenment and dissent, viii (1989), 43-68, p. 52. Among Priestley's colleagues and friends at Warrington were Dr John Taylor (who taught divinity), Dr John Aikin the elder (theology, ethics and logic), Dr John Reinhold Forster (a naturalist and traveller who accompanied Cook on one of his voyages) and Dr William Enfield (mathematics and natural sciences).
    • (1989) Enlightenment and Dissent , vol.8 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 43-68
    • Graham, J.1
  • 130
    • 33749601600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • Another tutor with whom Priestley had extensive exchanges was the eccentric Dissenter and classicist Gilbert Wakefield, but he joined the academy after Priestley had left (Thorpe, Enlightenment and dissent, op. cit. (ref. 11), 33-34;
    • Enlightenment and Dissent , pp. 33-34
    • Thorpe1
  • 131
    • 33749622359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 48
    • Smith, Enlightenment and dissent, op. cit. (ref. 48), 161-8). Warrington was also home to Anna Laetitia Barbauld (daughter of John Aikin Sr, a famous poet and publicist), her brother John Aikin Jr (a promoter of medical reforms at the turn of the century) and many more whose contributions to the formation of Dissenting ideology were invaluable.
    • Enlightenment and Dissent , pp. 161-168
    • Smith1
  • 133
    • 0346713093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i. Part 1, 58-59.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 58-59
    • Priestley1
  • 138
    • 0346082509 scopus 로고
    • The origins of British radicalism: The changing, rationale for dissent
    • Russell E. Richey, "The origins of British radicalism: The changing, rationale for dissent", Eighteenth-century studies, vii (1973-74), 179-92;
    • (1973) Eighteenth-century Studies , vol.7 , pp. 179-192
    • Richey, R.E.1
  • 139
    • 0347973818 scopus 로고
    • Whigs and nonconformists: Slumbering radicalism in English politics, 1739-89
    • James E. Bradley, "Whigs and nonconformists: Slumbering radicalism in English politics, 1739-89", Eighteenth-century studies, ix (1975), 1-27.
    • (1975) Eighteenth-century Studies , vol.9 , pp. 1-27
    • Bradley, J.E.1
  • 141
    • 33749609270 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Essay on the first principles of government (1771)
    • hereafter cited as Essay (1771)
    • In the preface to the second edition of his Essay on the first principles of government (1771), Works, xxii (hereafter cited as Essay (1771)), Priestley himself modestly stated that he had placed the most valuable interests of mankind on a broader foundation and a firmer basis than had Locke and others who had formerly written upon this subject (p. 3). Locke had refused to reject anyone who was Protestant. Priestley went further, arguing for a complete and limitless toleration, which included Catholics, unbelievers and other religious minorities (p. 63; see also p. 72, n. *).
    • Works , vol.22
  • 142
    • 0346713089 scopus 로고
    • A letter of advice to those Dissenters who conduct the application to Parliament for relief from certain penal laws
    • my italics
    • Priestley supported the universal language of toleration of any opinion of any man: "Ask for the common right of humanity" in matters of beliefs, he advised his fellow Dissenters in his A letter of advice to those Dissenters who conduct the application to Parliament for relief from certain penal laws (1773) (Works, xxii, 442-43 [my italics]).
    • (1773) Works , vol.22 , pp. 442-443
  • 143
    • 0346713088 scopus 로고
    • A free address to those who have petitioned for the repeal of the late Act of Parliament, in favour of the Roman Catholics
    • See the plea for tolerating Catholics in Joseph Priestley, A free address to those who have petitioned for the repeal of the late Act of Parliament, in favour of the Roman Catholics (1780), Works, xxii, 499-516. Unfortunately, this position brought down on him the wrath not only of the clergy but also of his fellow Dissenters.
    • (1780) Works , vol.22 , pp. 499-516
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 144
    • 0347343633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 68-70.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 68-70
    • Priestley1
  • 145
    • 0347973829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • A work that made up Priestley's mind for good was A letter to Lord Viscount Barrington: (written in the year 1730) concerning the question, whether the logos supplied the place of a human soul in the person of Jesus Christ (London, 1833), written by Nathaniel Lardner (1684-1768). Following Lardner, Priestley believed that Christ was chosen by God to carry out his word: this was reason enough to love and adore him, but Christ was not invested with the powers of the Divine. See Rutt's n. * in Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 69-71.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 69-71
    • Priestley1
  • 146
    • 33749632240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 12
    • See also Schofield, Works, op. cit. (ref. 12), 172-3.
    • Works , pp. 172-173
    • Schofield1
  • 147
    • 0040705060 scopus 로고
    • Boston, Introduction and ch. 1
    • The struggle between England and the American colonies helped define the camps of the reform movement, whose origins can be traced to the 1760s. See Gregory Claeys, Thomas Paine: Social and political thought (Boston, 1989), Introduction and ch. 1;
    • (1989) Thomas Paine: Social and Political Thought
    • Claeys, G.1
  • 149
    • 0039009491 scopus 로고
    • English Radicalism in the Age of George III
    • J. G. A. Pocock (ed.), Princeton
    • John Brewer, idem, "English Radicalism in the Age of George III", in J. G. A. Pocock (ed.), Three British revolutions, 1641, 1688, 1776 (Princeton, 1980), 323-67;
    • (1980) Three British Revolutions, 1641, 1688, 1776 , pp. 323-367
    • Brewer, J.1
  • 155
    • 0347973813 scopus 로고
    • The House of Lords, party, and public opinion: Opposition use of protest, 1760-1782
    • See C. Lowe, "The House of Lords, party, and public opinion: Opposition use of protest, 1760-1782", Albion, xi (1979), 143-56, pp. 144-5;
    • (1979) Albion , vol.11 , pp. 143-156
    • Lowe, C.1
  • 156
    • 0347973718 scopus 로고
    • The brood hen of fiction: Mrs. Macaulay and radical politics, 1765-1775
    • Barbara B. Schnorrenberg, "The brood hen of fiction: Mrs. Macaulay and radical politics, 1765-1775", Albion, xi (1979), 33-45, pp. 33-36;
    • (1979) Albion , vol.11 , pp. 33-45
    • Schnorrenberg, B.B.1
  • 157
    • 33749649066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 60
    • Graham, Albion, op. cit. (ref. 60), Part 1, 53-55.
    • Albion , Issue.1 PART , pp. 53-55
    • Graham1
  • 158
    • 33749611346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For Priestley's involvement in Wilkite radical propaganda, see Graham, Albion, ibid, 56-57.
    • Albion , pp. 56-57
    • Graham1
  • 159
    • 0003752344 scopus 로고
    • New Haven, ch. 3
    • Contrary to the argument made in Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992), ch. 3, I doubt that Wilkes was accepted as a true patriot by the British; many radicals claimed that their motives were patriotic (Richard Price and Priestley among them), but few were convinced by this.
    • (1992) Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837
    • Colley, L.1
  • 161
    • 0347973821 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9)
    • Priestley remarked that he had written several "anonymous pieces in favour of civil liberties, during the persecution of Mr. Wilkes" (Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 75).
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 75
    • Priestley1
  • 162
    • 33749628451 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The present state of liberties in Great Britain and her colonies
    • idem
    • One of these, written at the suggestion of his editor, was The present state of liberties in Great Britain and her colonies ... (1769). There Priestley argued that the "great Bill of Rights has been invaded by a repeated refusal, to admit the first county in England, to judge of the fitness of the person who shall represent them in parliament; and one whom they had freely chosen has been excluded, though guilty of no crime" (idem. The present state of liberties in Great Britain and her colonies ..., Works, xxii, 390).
    • Works , vol.22 , pp. 390
  • 163
    • 33749616323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 60
    • Sec also Graham, Works, op. cit. (ref. 60), Part 1, 55-56.
    • Works , Issue.1 PART , pp. 55-56
    • Graham1
  • 164
    • 33749647277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 3
    • After the riots of 1791, Priestley suggested that he had written very few other political pamphlets (Graham, idem, Works, op. cit. (ref. 3), 425). His opponents insisted on a connection between his early views, his radical theological views and his support of both the American and French Revolutions.
    • Works , pp. 425
    • Graham1
  • 165
    • 0347973758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 8
    • For Priestley's objection to Britain's colonial policies, see Memoirs of Joseph Priestley by Cooper (ref. 8), 449-52;
    • Memoirs of Joseph Priestley by Cooper , pp. 449-452
  • 167
    • 0347343547 scopus 로고
    • An address to the Protestant dissenters of all denominations on the approaching election of Members of Parliament, with respect to the state of public liberty in general and of American affairs in particular
    • An address to the Protestant dissenters of all denominations on the approaching election of Members of Parliament, with respect to the state of public liberty in general and of American affairs in particular (1774), Works, xxii.
    • (1774) Works , vol.22
  • 168
    • 33749647277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 59
    • Cf. Graham, Works, op. cit. (ref. 59), 10;
    • Works , pp. 10
    • Graham1
  • 169
    • 33749610113 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 6
    • Fruchtman, Works, op. cit. (ref. 6), 58-59.
    • Works , pp. 58-59
    • Fruchtman1
  • 170
    • 0346713082 scopus 로고
    • English Dissenters and the American Revolution
    • H. C. Allen and Roger Thompson (eds), London
    • On the Dissenters' attitudes towards the American cause, see C. C. Bonwick, "English Dissenters and the American Revolution", in H. C. Allen and Roger Thompson (eds), Contrast and connection: Bicentennial essays in Anglo-American history (London, 1976), 88-112;
    • (1976) Contrast and Connection: Bicentennial Essays in Anglo-American History , pp. 88-112
    • Bonwick, C.C.1
  • 171
    • 0347343613 scopus 로고
    • Ideological immigrants in revolutionary America
    • Paul Fritz and David Williams (eds), Toronto
    • Arthur Sheps, "Ideological immigrants in revolutionary America", in Paul Fritz and David Williams (eds), City and society in the eighteenth century (Toronto, 1973), 231-46.
    • (1973) City and Society in the Eighteenth Century , pp. 231-246
    • Sheps, A.1
  • 174
    • 33749623082 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • agree with Graham's radical interpretation of Priestley, and with her characterization of his political philosophy as "Lockean". What that means in this case is that he strongly advocated the right of oppressed peoples to rebel against tyrannical government (Graham, City and society in the eighteenth century ibid., 7-9).
    • City and Society in the Eighteenth Century , pp. 7-9
    • Graham1
  • 177
    • 0346082552 scopus 로고
    • See Priestley, Essay (1771), 3-5.
    • (1771) Essay , pp. 3-5
    • Priestley1
  • 183
    • 0346712999 scopus 로고
    • Remarks on some paragraphs in the fourth volume of Dr. Blackstone's commentaries on the laws of England relating to the Dissenters
    • Joseph Priestley, Remarks on some paragraphs in the fourth volume of Dr. Blackstone's commentaries on the laws of England relating to the Dissenters (1769), Works, xxii, 302. Blackstone was a jurist and a teacher of law at Oxford whose books were widely read in America and England. Priestley opposed, among other things, Blackstone's attack on Wilkes.
    • (1769) Works , vol.22 , pp. 302
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 184
    • 33749636095 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We should note that the subtitle to Essay runs as follows: An essay on the first principles of government; and on the nature of political, civil, and religions liberty. In my discussion of this issue in the second part of this section I will rely on the second edition. In the ensuing section I shall rely on the first edition of 1768 (not included by Rutt in Priestley's Works).
  • 186
    • 0347343561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • op. cit. (ref. 9), and n. *, 159-60 and n. ‡;
    • Priestley to Lindsey, 23 August 1771, and Priestley to Lindsey, 2 March 1772, in Priestley, op. cit. (ref. 9), Works, i, Part 1, 144 and n. *, 159-60 and n. ‡;.
    • Works , vol.1 , Issue.1 PART , pp. 144
    • Priestley1
  • 187
    • 0346713004 scopus 로고
    • Letters to a layman, on the subject of the Rev. Lindsey's proposal for a reformed English Church
    • On Priestley's radical position on this campaign, see his Letters to a layman, on the subject of the Rev. Lindsey's proposal for a reformed English Church (1774), Works, xxi, 29-49.
    • (1774) Works , vol.21 , pp. 29-49
  • 188
    • 33749617387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 65), ch. 6
    • A Bill to relieve the Dissenters of religious restrictions was brought to Parliament in April 1772 (Lincoln, Works, op. cit. (ref. 65), ch. 6;
    • Works
    • Lincoln1
  • 189
    • 33749623837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 44), ch. 3
    • Henriques, Works, op. cit. (ref. 44), ch. 3).
    • Works
    • Henriques1
  • 190
    • 0347973835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 66, and passim
    • See Priestley, Works, op. cit. (ref. 66, 1773), 456-57, and passim. He demanded that the campaign champion universal toleration, rather than a toleration of specific Christian sects.
    • (1773) Works , pp. 456-457
    • Priestley1
  • 191
  • 192
    • 33749622361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 2
    • In a later (and angrier) pamphlet, Priestley reiterated that "the most important questions relating to religion are the plainest things in the world, and require nothing but a common understanding, honestly applied, to comprehend them" (Priestley, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 2), 191).
    • Essay , pp. 191
    • Priestley1
  • 194
    • 33749647636 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 65), ch. 5
    • For an excellent presentation of this and other relevant points, see Lincoln, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 65), ch. 5).
    • Essay
    • Lincoln1
  • 196
    • 0004213376 scopus 로고
    • (I have used a copy of the original publication). These points were repeated and reinforced in Priestley's response to Burke's Reflections of the revolution in France (1790).
    • (1790) Reflections of the Revolution in France
    • Burke1
  • 197
  • 198
  • 199
    • 0346082542 scopus 로고
    • Letters to a young man, occasioned by Mr. Wakefield's essay on public worship; to which is added, a reply to Mr. Evanson...
    • See Joseph Priestley, Letters to a young man, occasioned by Mr. Wakefield's essay on public worship; to which is added, a reply to Mr. Evanson ... (1792), Works, xx. In this pamphlet on the Sabbath, Priestley discusses congregational relations.
    • (1792) Works , vol.20
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 202
    • 0346082487 scopus 로고
    • See also Priestley, Essay (1768), 59, 71;
    • (1768) Essay , pp. 59
    • Priestley1
  • 203
    • 33749622361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 82), Letters 1-3
    • cf. Priestley, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 82), Letters 1-3.
    • Essay
    • Priestley1
  • 204
    • 33749626958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 6), chs 2-3
    • For an excellent discussion of the term 'republicanism', see Fruchtman, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 6), chs 2-3).
    • Essay
    • Fruchtman1
  • 206
    • 85037605060 scopus 로고
    • Virtue and commerce in the eighteenth century
    • J. G. A. Pocock, idem, "Virtue and commerce in the eighteenth century", Journal of interdisciplinary history, in (1972), 119-34;
    • (1972) Journal of Interdisciplinary History , pp. 119-134
    • Pocock, J.G.A.1
  • 207
    • 0346713036 scopus 로고
    • The Machiavellian moment revisited: A study of history and ideology
    • J. G. A. Pocock, idem, "The Machiavellian moment revisited: A study of history and ideology", Journal of modern history, liii (1981), 49-72;
    • (1981) Journal of Modern History , vol.53 , pp. 49-72
    • Pocock, J.G.A.1
  • 208
    • 0004032187 scopus 로고
    • New York, esp. chs 3 and 6
    • J. G. A. Pocock, idem, Virtue, commerce, and history: Essays on political thought and history, chiefly in the eighteenth century (New York, 1985), esp. chs 3 and 6). Priestley's model placed the "majority of those whose circumstances render them above being corrupt" at the centre (with no reference to property of any kind); while he preferred indirect elections, his political model is as democratic as it gets in the eighteenth century.
    • (1985) Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History, Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century
    • Pocock, J.G.A.1
  • 213
    • 33749622361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 82), Letters 6-8
    • Cf. Priestley, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 82), Letters 6-8.
    • Essay
    • Priestley1
  • 214
    • 0346082552 scopus 로고
    • Priestley, Idem, Essay (1771), 74.
    • (1771) Essay , pp. 74
    • Priestley1
  • 217
    • 33749622361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 47
    • Priestley, Idem, Essay (op. cit. (ref. 47), 341, 354, 356-9. The Dissenters supported, at this point, a limited monarchy, but by no means supported a republican constitution.
    • Essay , pp. 341
    • Priestley1
  • 218
    • 33749595349 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • His movement was therefore from epistemology through physics to metaphysics.
  • 219
    • 33749622361 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 37
    • Timothy Priestley recalled that his brother had first experimented with spiders at the age of eleven (T. Priestley, Essay op. cit. (ref. 37), 42).
    • Essay , pp. 42
    • Priestley, T.1
  • 222
    • 33749625561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 20
    • John Michell (1724-93), an astronomer and member of the Royal Society (which he joined in 1760), helped Priestley in the preparation of his study of optics as well as in working out his ideas about materialism (Schofield, Experiments and observations on different kinds of air, 3rd edn op. cit. (ref. 20), 244-6).
    • Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, 3rd Edn , pp. 244-246
    • Schofield1
  • 223
    • 0346414151 scopus 로고
    • The scientific work of the Reverend John Michell
    • On Michell's optics and its relations to Priestley's see Clyde L. Hardin, "The scientific work of the Reverend John Michell", Annals of science, xxii (1966), 24-47, pp. 43-47;
    • (1966) Annals of Science , vol.22 , pp. 24-47
    • Hardin, C.L.1
  • 225
    • 33749600879 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 18
    • See also Yolton, The development of Newtonian optics in England op. cit. (ref. 18), 110-11. Boscovich's "particles" were the centre-point of forces but had no existence in themselves. Priestley's theory was indeed Newtonian or corpuscular, but he differed from Anglican Newtonians in that he thought of forces as an integral part of matter.
    • The Development of Newtonian Optics in England , pp. 110-111
    • Yolton1
  • 227
    • 0346082566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Priestley, History of optics Ibid., 390-1. As I mentioned earlier, Priestley took his cue from Boscovich, who argued that matter consisted of "physical points" imbued with or surrounded by forces of attraction and repulsion. But for Priestley the materialist, those "points" meant something entirely different for he saw in them the most fundamental form of matter.
    • History of Optics , pp. 390-391
    • Priestley1
  • 228
    • 84996160050 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 97
    • On the prevalence of Newtonian optics in the mid-eighteenth century, see Steffens, History of optics op. cit. (ref. 97), 51-66.
    • History of Optics , pp. 51-66
    • Steffens1
  • 229
    • 0348069057 scopus 로고
    • London
    • A defining moment in early eighteenth-century Newtonianism was the correspondence between Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), Newton's loyal disciple, and the German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716). Over the course of their dialogue, Clarke elaborated the position I have described as that of "Anglican Newtonians". See Samuel Clarke, A collection of papers, which passed between the late learned Mr. Leibnitz, and Dr. Clarke ... (London, 1717).
    • (1717) A Collection of Papers, Which Passed between the Late Learned Mr. Leibnitz, and Dr. Clarke...
    • Clarke, S.1
  • 230
    • 0010991697 scopus 로고
    • Samuel Clarke, Newtonianism, and the factions of post-revolutionary England
    • For the politics of Newtonianism in the first half of the eighteenth century, see Larry Stewart, "Samuel Clarke, Newtonianism, and the factions of post-revolutionary England", Journal of the history of ideas, xlii (1981), 53-72.
    • (1981) Journal of the History of Ideas , vol.42 , pp. 53-72
    • Stewart, L.1
  • 231
    • 33749608392 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 4
    • For the politics of Newtonianism in the 1780s and the 1790s, see Scott, Journal of the history of ideas, op. cit. (ref. 4), 481-4.
    • Journal of the History of Ideas , pp. 481-484
    • Scott1
  • 236
    • 0347343560 scopus 로고
    • Matter and spirit as natural symbols in eighteenth-century British natural philosophy
    • On Baxter's dualist interpretation of the mind-body connection (with which Priestley struggled), see C. B. Wilde, "Matter and spirit as natural symbols in eighteenth-century British natural philosophy", The British journal for the history of science, xv (1982), 102-3;
    • (1982) The British Journal for the History of Science , vol.15 , pp. 102-103
    • Wilde, C.B.1
  • 237
    • 85173338063 scopus 로고
    • States of mind: Enlightenment and natural philosophy
    • George S. Rousseau (ed.), Berkeley
    • Simon Schaffer, "States of mind: Enlightenment and natural philosophy", in George S. Rousseau (ed.), The languages of psyche: Mind and body in Enlightenment thought (Berkeley, 1990), 233-90, pp. 279-81.
    • (1990) The Languages of Psyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought , pp. 233-290
    • Schaffer, S.1
  • 240
    • 33645631798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • First introductory essay, London
    • Joseph Priestley, Idem, First introductory essay, Hartley's Theory of the human mind, on the principle of the association of ideas; with essays relating to the subject of it by Joseph Priestley (London, 1775), p. vii. Priestley argued that Hartley (1705-57) had drawn his principles from Newton, who was the first to suggest a theory of vibrations. At the end of his Principia and in the Queries at the end of his Opticks (e.g., Query 13), Newton wondered if the process by which ideas of external objects were created might involve the mechanical transmission of sensations. He suggested that beams of light excited the retina by vibrations, which were then transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain to create an impression.
    • (1775) Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind, on the Principle of the Association of Ideas; with Essays Relating to the Subject of It by Joseph Priestley
    • Priestley, J.1
  • 249
    • 33749602340 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 103
    • Lord Shelburne supported a number of radicals, including Wilkes, Price, Priestley and Bentham (see Schaffer, Hartley's Theory of the human mind, on the principle of the association of ideas; with essays relating to the subject of it by Joseph Priestley op. cit. (ref. 103), 238, 252-8). Shelburne was educated at Oxford, served in the Seven Years' War and first entered Parliament in 1760. He was prime minister between 1772 and 1783, but had to resign because of the objections of the Foxite Whigs (despite his opposition to the war). He did not serve in any official capacity after 1783. But Shelburne supported the Dissenters on several occasions, especially when they revived their appeal for the repeal of the Test Act in 1772. Such sympathies made it possible for Shelburne to hire Priestley and then to employ him in a variety of tasks, including the tutelage of his children.
    • Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind, on the Principle of the Association of Ideas; with Essays Relating to the Subject of It by Joseph Priestley , pp. 238
    • Schaffer1
  • 252
    • 84925108900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • hereafter cited as Disquisitions), 3-23. The theoretical elaboration of the penetrability and complexity of matter came from Boscovich and Michell.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 3-23
  • 256
  • 257
  • 258
    • 84925108900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disquisitions, Ibid., 114-20.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 114-120
  • 259
    • 84925108900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disquisitions, Ibid., 197-200. By contrast, Plato thought about the soul in material terms: it had heat, weight and so on.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 197-200
  • 260
    • 0346082503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. Disquisitions, ibid., 191-2.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 191-192
  • 264
    • 33749600880 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hiebert et al., ref. 11
    • Cf. Schofield, in Hiebert et al., Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 11), 111.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 111
    • Schofield1
  • 265
    • 33749617027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ref. 14), passim'
    • For Priestley's view on progress, see McEvoy, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 14), passim',
    • Disquisitions
    • McEvoy1
  • 266
    • 0347343546 scopus 로고
    • Joseph Priestley and a historian and the idea of progress
    • James J. Hoecker, "Joseph Priestley and a historian and the idea of progress", Price-Priestley newsletter, iii (1979), 29-40;
    • (1979) Price-Priestley Newsletter , vol.3 , pp. 29-40
    • Hoecker, J.J.1
  • 267
    • 0346713022 scopus 로고
    • The irony of history: Priestley's rational theology
    • Margaret Canovan, "The irony of history: Priestley's rational theology", Price-Priestley newsletter, iv (1980), 16-25.
    • (1980) Price-Priestley Newsletter , vol.4 , pp. 16-25
    • Canovan, M.1
  • 269
    • 0346082503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disquisitions was published in 1777, five years after the publication of Institutes of natural and revealed religion (ref. 34), and five years before History of the corruptions (ref. 127). Priestley saw all three works as part of a single project (see Priestley, Disquisitions, p. xxvi;
    • Disquisitions
    • Priestley1
  • 270
    • 0346082503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 123
    • Priestley, idem, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 123, 1871), pp. x-xii).
    • (1871) Disquisitions
    • Priestley1
  • 272
    • 33749590284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • For a brief discussion of this point, see Gibbs, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 11), 98-99.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 98-99
    • Gibbs1
  • 273
    • 33749600880 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 20
    • Boscovich to Priestley, 17 October 1778, in Schofield, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 20), 169-70.
    • Disquisitions , pp. 169-170
    • Schofield1
  • 274
    • 33749590284 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 11
    • As I have already mentioned, the book cost Priestley his patron and his relationship with Boscovich; it also cost him many of his friends (Gibbs, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 11), 100;
    • Disquisitions , pp. 100
    • Gibbs1
  • 275
    • 33749600880 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 20
    • see also Priestley to Boscovich, 19 August 1778, in Schofield, Disquisitions, op. cit. (ref. 20), 166-8).
    • Disquisitions , pp. 166-168
    • Schofield1
  • 277
    • 33749606315 scopus 로고
    • For his death in 1782, see The gentleman's magazine. lii (1782), 357.
    • (1782) The Gentleman's Magazine , vol.52 , pp. 357
  • 278
    • 84996261992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ref. 103
    • Materialism was crucial to political thought even before Karl Marx turned it into the foundation of radicalism. For an excellent assessment of the politics of (psychological) materialism in the late eighteenth century, see Schaffer, The gentleman's magazine. op. cit. (ref. 103), 241-52.
    • The Gentleman's Magazine , pp. 241-252
    • Schaffer1
  • 280
    • 0004284439 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • For Priestley's role in the development of these "evolutionary" sciences see Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (New York, 1992), 8-11.
    • (1992) Darwin , pp. 8-11
    • Desmond, A.1    Moore, J.2


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