Towards good environmental governance in Europe

European Environmental Law Review

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 2-24

  Heldeweg, Michiel A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION; POLICY MAKING;

EURASIA; EUROPE;

EID: 33747226714     PISSN: 09661646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.54648/eelr2005001     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. White Paper, Brussels, 25.07.2001, COM(2001) 428 (Final). For quote see p. 4 (see also p. 8).
2. Note the Fifth Environmental Action Programme (EAP), which will be discussed later in this article.
3. Directive 2003/4, OJ 2003 L41.
4. Directive 85/337, OJ 1997 L73/5 (amended).
5. Directive 96/61, OJ 1996 L257/26 (amended).
6. OJ 1999 LI 17/1.
7. White Paper, p. 10.
8. The observations in this regard are mainly been derived from R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), Public Environmental Law in the European Union and the United States, A Comparative Analysis (Kluwer Law International: The Hague, London, New York, 2002) especially the chapter on comparative remarks.
9. For this reason also, this article relies more heavily on the corpus of existing law ("that which is already there").
10. Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, Brussels 18 July 2003, Conv 850/03. Provisional consolidated version 25 June 2004, CIG 86/04.
11. Readers that are familiar with the good governance literature may wish to leap forward to the final subheading (Focus) of this second paragraph.
12. Ibid.
13. White Paper, p. 11.
14. White Paper, Op.cit., p. 8, n. 1.
15. See for a definition, White Paper, p. 14, n. 9.
16. White Paper, p. 15.
17. K. van Kersbergen and F. van Waarden, Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Paper on the theme "Shifts in Governance" as part of the NOW's Strategic Plan 2002-2005, July 2001, p. 4-77.
18. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 15. Note that I have taken the liberty of regrouping their presentation in three main clusters.
19. Under the heading of corporate governance and new public management.
20. Governing without governments is also a key issue with reference to the ability of civil society, especially of local societies, to self-organise and self-manage their common pool resources and prevent their depletion; as in the studies by E. Ostrom, see for instance, http://www.eldis.org/static/ DOC7033.htm (27 September 2004).
21. Ibid., pp. 29-50.
22. If only because it follows on from the (explicitly adhered to) rule of law.
23. The present EEA (European Environmental Agency) does not belong to this category.
24. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 16.
25. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 15.
26. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 21.
27. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 33.
28. Shifts in Governance: Problems of Legitimacy and Accountability, Op.cit., p. 21.
29. See, for instance: A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Bruckner, "European Governance and the Transfer of "New" Environmental Policy Instruments (NEPI's) in the European Union", 81 (3) Public Administration, 2003, pp. 555-574
30. and B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, "Old wine in new bottles? The Commission and the use of environmental policy instruments", 81 (3) Public Administration, 2003, pp. 575-606.
31. OC(1993) C138/1, p. 12. See also Art. 2(4) of Regulation (3062/95) on Tropical Forests, OJ 1995 L327/9, and, with reference to the 1987 Brundtland Report, the definition in P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law, part I (Manchester University Press: Manchester, 1994) p. 198, a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
32. G. van Calster, "Public Environmental Law in the European Union", in R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra, n. 8, pp. 465-515, at p. 474.
33. J.H. Jans, European Environmental Law, Groningen, Europa Law Publishing, 2000, p. 9.
34. J.H. Jans, supra note 31, p. 18. Note: "must be" does not detract from the fact that Art. 174(3) EC includes merely as "taking account of" certain aspects of environmental policy making.
35. Supra Note, Op.cit., p. 21-22;
36. G. van Calster, supra n. 31, p. 477.
37. For a summary, see: J. Scott, "Law and Environmental Governance in the EU", International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 2002, pp. 996-1005.
38. OJ 1983 C46/1. See also B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, pp. 576-577.
39. OJ 1987 C328/1.
40. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, p. 577
41. (following D.A. Schön and M. Rein, Frame reflection. Toward the resolution of intractable policy controversies, New York, Basic Books, p. 4).
42. Ibid.
43. COM(1998) 333 final.
44. COM(2001) 264. See also: Presidency Conclusions, Gothenburg European Council, 15-16 June 2001, especially. 4-8.
45. Further discussed below, under §IV. (Strategic ... perspective).
46. Presidency Conclusions, Barcelona European Council, 15-16 March 2002, especially 15 and furthermore 27-39.
47. Directive 2001/42, OJ 2001 L197/30.
48. See Case C-379/92 Peralta 1994 [ECR] 1-3453.
49. 〈 http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/environment/index_en.htm 〉. For a thorough study on the Integration principle, see: N. Dhondt, Integration of Environmental Protection into other EC Policies; Legal Theory and Practice (Europa Law Publishing, The Avosetta Series: Groningen).
50. See n. 5.
51. BREF = BAT Reference document (a set of technical standards related to the BAT-level, for a specific activity or type of pollution).
52. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, p. 573, as well as p. 97 and p. 103 (Denmark), p. 257 (Ireland) and p. 358 (the Netherlands).
53. Directive 91/676, OJ 1991 L375/1; Directive 96/82, OJ 1997 L10/13; Directive 79/409, OJ 1997 L103/1 (amended); Directive 92/34, OJ 1992 L206/7.
54. The difficulties relating to the different procedures following from Art. 175(2) EC will be discussed in § V. (under: Procedures).
55. See n. 49.
56. Directive 85/337, OJ 1985 L175/40, with a major amendment by Directive 97/11, OJ 1997 L73/14.
57. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8: Austria, p. 14; Denmark, pp. 102-103; France, pp. 183-184; the Netherlands, pp. 355-357 and, generally, p 57.
58. Supra, Op.cit., p. 572.
59. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 9, p. 575.
60. OJ 1973 C112/1; OJ 1977 C139/1; OJ 1983 C46/1; OJ 1987 C328/1 and OJ 1993 C138/1.
61. Decision 2179/98, OJ 1998 L275/1
62. Decision 1600/2002, OJ 2002 L242.
63. 〈 http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/newprg/index.htm (24/02/2003) 〉.
64. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, p. 582.
65. Considered to be of great importance to the principles of good governance: White Paper, pp. 10-11.
66. See Council resolution on the drafting, implementation and enforcement of Community environmental law, OJ 1997 C321/1.
67. See Directive 2000/60, OJ 2000 L327/1.
68. Directive 96/62 on ambient air quality assessment and management, OJ 1996 L296/55.
69. Directive 91/156, OJ 1991 L78/32.
70. Primarily saying that if the factual quality is better than what the directive requires, the factual quality becomes the standard (see for instance Art. 11, § 6 of the Water Framework Directive).
71. See Art. 4 of the Air Framework Directive".
72. See Arts. 10(3) and 11(4) of the Water Framework Directive, and also Case C-138/98, Fornasar, in relation to Art. 18 of the Waste Framework Directive. Furthermore, the Waste Framework Directive offers general rules on (categories of) waste but goes on (see Arts. 3-5) to require Member States to introduce (additional) measures on prevention, reduction and recovery of waste (and, although not strictly within a framework directive, Art. 14 of the Wild Birds Directive).
73. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 112.
74. This is a type of harmonisation that is only used if there is a strong link with the free movement of goods, so especially when product standards are involved (as with the amount of exhaust fumes and the amount of noise produced by cars).
75. See J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 118.
76. Art. 7(3) of the "Air framework directive", for instance, stipulates that Member States are to take the necessary steps to ensure compliance with limit values and also to establish action plans to abate the risks of exceeding thresholds.
77. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, pp. 556-558.
78. See for instance Case 361/88, 1991, 1-2567 and C-59/89, 1991, I-2607 (TA-Luft). J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, pp. 144-145.
79. Case 215/83, 1985 1055; J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, pp. 146-147.
80. Directive 93/76 OJ 1993 L237/28. To limit carbon dioxide emissions by improving energy efficiency (SAVE), Art. 1: "Programmes can include laws, regulations, economic and administrative instruments, information, education and voluntary agreements whose impact can be objectively assessed." See also Case C-255/93 I-4949.
81. Commission recommendation 96/733, OJ 1996 L333/69 and Council Resolution of 7 October 1997, OJ 1997 C321/6. The Commission also mentions European-wide agreements but is sceptic on that issue.
82. J.H. Jans supra n. 31, p. 148; Jans proposes even further requirements.
83. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, p. 566.
84. Ibid.
85. Environmental agreements at the Community level within the framework of the action plan on the simplification and improvement of the regulatory environment, COM(2002) 412 final.
86. Directive 2000/53, OJ 2000 L269/34.
87. Directive 94/62, OJ 1994 L365/10, amended (most recent: 2004/12 OJ 2004 L47/26).
88. As voluntary agreements have already been discussed in the above, they are not included within these examples.
89. Regulation 880/1992, OJ 1992 L099 (amended).
90. Regulation 761/2001, OJ 2001 LI 14/1.
91. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, p. 569.
92. In part delegated to the Commission.
93. The Commission has issued a standard agreement: Decision 2000/729, OJ 2000 L293/20.
94. Regulation 1980/2000, OJ 2000 L237.
95. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, p. 570.
96. Especially Art. 4 of Directive 91/676, OJ 1991 L375/1.
97. OJ 1970 176/1, amended by Directive 94/12, OJ 1994 L100.
98. OJ 2000 L12/16.
99. See J. Scott, supra n. 34
100. and E. Woerdman, The Institutional Economics of Market-Based Climate Policy (Elsevier Science: Amsterdam, 2004).
101. OJ 2000 L244/1.
102. OJ 1988 L297/10 (Vienna Convention) and OJ 1988 L299/21 (Montreal Protocol).
103. Directive 2003/87, OJ 2003 L275.
104. See also J. Scott, supra n. 34, p. 1002.
105. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, p. 565-566.
106. Directive 2003/96, OJ 2003 L283/51.
107. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, p. 570.
108. See ECO, Product, Fuel and Green taxes in Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands; R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, pp. 17, 109, 219, 293 and 367.
109. See the income tax system in Flanders (Belgium) and the German subsidies (in connection with agreements on reduction-targets); R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, pp. 54-55 and 220.
110. These are difficult to find on a Member State level. There certainly are (or have been) discussions on this matter, but no implementation - apart from tradable rights in the agricultural area.
111. As in Flanders (on waste policy), in Denmark (with a general legal basis in the Environmental Protection Act!) and in Germany (both on a private and public law basis), R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere feds.), supra n. 8, pp. 52, 108 and 222.
112. For instance in Flanders, Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Spain; R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, pp. 52-53, 103, 260-261, 293 and 428.
113. See also B. Rittberger and J. Richarson, supra n. 29, p. 603.
114. On principles see: R. Macrory (ed.), Principles of European Environmental Law (Europa Law Publishing; The Avosetta Series: Groningen, 2004).
115. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 32.
116. See J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, pp. 33-34.
117. See Annex IV of Directive 96/61, OJ 1996 L257/26.
118. For instance, case C-180/96, United Kingdom v. Commission [1998] ECR I-2265.
119. OJ 1983C46/1.
120. Directive 90/313, OJ 1990 L158/56.
121. Directive 85/337, OJ 1985 L175/40 (amended).
122. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, pp. 21-22;
123. G. van Calster, supra n. 31, p. 477.
124. On the binding effect for Member States, see G. Winter, "Environmental Principles and Community Law", in J.H. Jans (ed.), The European Convention and the Future of European Environmental Law, Proceedings of the Avosetta Group of European Environmental Lawyers (Europa Law Publishing; The Avosetta Series: Groningen, 2003) pp. 3-25. Compare as an example also the Walloon Waste case, Case C-2/90 Commission v. Belgium [1992] ECR I-4431.
125. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, pp. 567-568.
126. At that moment Art. 130R-T EC.
127. As dealt with under Coherence; § III.
128. Seveso-II Directive 96/82, OJ 1997 L10/13.
129. See annex II (under 10) to Directive 85/337 as amended by Directive 97/11, OJ 1997 L073/5. Also (Art. 3 under 2a of) Directive 01/42, OJ 2001 L197/30.
130. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, pp. 46-47.
131. G. van Calster, supra n. 31, p. 9;
132. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 9.
133. See the considerations under § IV; Strategic .. perspective
134. Second Comitology Decision 1999/468, OJ 1999 L184/23 (repealing the First Comitology Decision 1987/373, OJ 1987 L197.
135. See also Case C-378/00 Commission v. Council and EP.
136. See, amongst other sources: Report from the Commission, on the working of committees in 2002, COM(2003) 530 final. See also J.H. Jans, "EU Environmental Policy and the Civil Society", in J.H. Jans (ed.), The European Convention and the Future of European Environmental Law, Proceedings of the Avosetta Group of European Environmental Lawyers, supra n. 118, pp. 55-66, especially pp. 61-62.
137. See Art. l(a) and Art. 18 of Directive 91/156, OJ 1991 L78/32 (amendment of 75/442, OJ 1975 L194/47).
138. To say that this will enhance the legitimacy of the outcome is still somewhat optimistic in my view, but this procedure is far preferable to other existing ones.
139. Supra, n. 3.
140. Supra, n. 4 and n. 5.
141. OJ 1993 L168/1 and OJ 1990 L120/1.
142. J. Scott, supra n. 34, p. 999.
143. See also D.J. Fiorino, "Rethinking environmental regulation: perspectives on law and governance", 23 Harvard Environmental Law Review, 1999, pp. 441-469, especially pp. 465-466.
144. Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, signed by the EC on the 25 June 1998; COM(1998) 344 final.
145. Directive 85/337, OJ 1985 L175/40, with a major amendment by Directive 97/11, OJ 1997 L73/14. A more recent amendment was made in view of improving access to justice: Directive 2003/35, OJ 2003 LI56.
146. Bulletin EC 1/2-1991 (26 February 1991).
147. Directive 90/313, OJ 1990 L158/56 (repealed!).
148. J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 333.
149. See n. 3.
150. Packacing, Art. 6, section 4, see n. 83; Major Accidents, Art. 13 of Directive 96/82, OJ 1997 L0I0/13; habitats, Art. 17 of Directive 92/43, OJ 1992 L206/7.
151. Labelling, Arts 5, 8 and 10, and annex IV of Regulation 1980/2000, OJ 2000 L237/1; Import/export, Arts 4 and 9 of Regulation 2455/92, OJ 1992 L251/13 (amended); Genetically Modified Food: OJ 2003 L268 and OJ 2004 L102/14.
152. Directive 2003/35 on Public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment and amending with regard to public participation and access to justice directives 85/337 and 96/61; OJ 2003 L156.
153. COM(2003) 624 final.
154. Supra, Op.cit., General considerations, §1.1.
155. A term defined in Art. 2(1-g). The possibility of judicial action taken against private persons is also addressed; see Art. 3 - connecting the proposal to Art. 9(3) of the Aarhus Convention.
156. Article 2(1-b).
157. See Art. 5(1).
158. COM(2000) 11 final, Discussion paper: The Commission and Non-Governmental Organisations: Building a stronger partnership.
159. See also J.H. Jans, supra n. 31, p. 55.
160. See J. Scott, supra n. 4, p. 1000. See also: 〈http:// www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/funding/finansup.htm 〉 (dd. 24/02/2003); on the basis of Decision No. 466/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 1 March 2002 laying down a Community action programme promoting non-governmental organisations primarily active in the field of environmental protection.
161. See 〈http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ funding/ngo/2003/ list03_en.htm 〉.
162. See J. Scott, supra n. 4, p. 999. See also 〈http://www.eeb.org/ press/Green_G8_on_Convention_29_04_02.pdf〉 and for active participation: 〈http:// www.eeb.org/press/Green_G8_on_Convention_29_04_02.pdf 〈.
163. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, p. 573.
164. See, for instance, Austria, in R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, p. 16.
165. Clearly also by virtue of the EC EIA Directive (discussed above).
166. R.J.G.H. Seerden, M.A. Heldeweg and K. Deketelaere (eds.), supra n. 8, p. 577 and: Germany, p. 238; the Netherlands, p. 379; the UK, pp. 462-463.
167. supra n. 8, Op.cit., p. 581 and: France, p. 192; Italy, p. 309; the Netherlands, pp. 387-388; Spain, p. 435; the UK, pp. 462-463.
168. J. Scott, supra n. 34, p. 1001.
169. During the recent conference "The Challenge of Implementing New Regulatory Initiatives: State of Affairs and Critical Issues of EU Climate Change Policy" in Leuven, Belgium, on 17 and 18 September 2004, Zen Makuch offered a critical analyses under the heading: Emissions Trading and the Aarhus Provisions.
170. White Paper, pp. 33 and 8.
171. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, pp. 565-566 and 571.
172. See proposal No. 3 in their Statement on the Future of Europe (on the 29 April 2002) 〈http://www.eeb.org/press/ Green_G8_on_Convention_29_04_02. pdf〈.
173. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, pp. 597-601.
174. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, pp. 565-566 and 671-572.
175. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, Op.cit., pp. 568 and 571.
176. See § IV; Interplay and implementation.
177. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, pp. 560, 562 and 563-564.
178. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, Op.cit., p. 564.
179. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, pp. 577-578.
180. A. Jordan, R. Wurzel, A.R. Zito and L. Brückner, supra n. 29, p. 572, conclude that the protection of the SEM continues to play a very important role in today's environmental legislation.
181. Compare the analysis as presented by: M.G. Faure and J.G.J. Lefevere, "Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control: an Economic Appraisal", in Ch. Backes and G. Betlem (eds.), Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, The EC Directive from a Comparative Legal and Economic Perspective (Kluwer Law International: The Hague, London, Boston, 1998) p. 93-120.
182. Ibid.
183. R. van den Bergh, "The subsidiarity Principle in European Community Law: Some Insights from Law and Economics", Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law; 1994, pp. 337-366.
184. Also C. Tiebout, "A pure Theory of Local Expenditures", Journal of Political Economy, 1956, p. 416.
185. Through the same mechanisms that determine the "prisoner's dilemma".
186. Research shows that emission values only play a marginal role in (re)location decisions in industry!
187. During the recent conference "The Challenge of Implementing New Regulatory Initiatives: State of Affairs and Critical Issues of EU Climate Change Policy" in Leuven, Belgium, on the 17 and 18 September 2004) Dr. L. Krämer, former head of the DG-environment, acknowledged that out of all 100 requests for consultations with the commissioner, 95 were put forward by industry(lobbists).
188. See also: R van den Bergh, M. Faure and J.G.J. Lefevere, "The Subsidiarity Principle in European Environmental Law: An Economic Analysis", in E. Eide and R. van den Bergh (eds.), Law and Economics of the Environment (Juridisk Forlag: Oslo, 1995) pp. 122-166.
189. With grandfathering (or "rent seeking") as a possible consequence. See M. Maloney and R. McCormick, "A Positive Theory of Environmental Quality Regulation", Journal of Law and Economics, 1982, pp. 99-123.
190. J.H. Jans, supra n. 129, pp. 60-64 and 66.
191. J. Scott, supra n. 34, pp. 1001-1002.
192. J.H. Jans, supra n. 129, pp. 64-66 (also for some relevant case law).
193. Avosetta Group, "Resolution", in J.H. Jans (ed.), The European Convention and the Future of European Environmental Law, Proceedings of the Avosetta Group of European Environmental Lawyers, supra n. 118, p. 121, no. 8.
194. G. Winter, supra n. 118, pp. 3-25, especially p. 13.
195. A more "active" role on the part of the courts could, in a moderate way, bring about something of a shift to Court Governance; see the discussion under § II; Shifts.
196. F. Ermacora, "The Right to a Clean Environment in the Constitution of the European Union", in in J.H. Jans (ed.), The European Convention and the Future of European Environmental Law, Proceedings of the Avosetta Group of European Environmental Lawyers, supra n. 118, pp. 29-42.
197. For the resolution of the whole Avosetta Group on this issue see F. Ermacora, "The Right to a Clean Environment in the Constitution of the European Union", The European Convention and the Future of European Environmental Law, Proceedings of the Avosetta Group of European Environmental Lawyers, supra n. 118, ibid. pp. 119-120.
198. See the 5th "issue for consideration in: 〈http:// www.eeb.org/press/Green_G8_on_Convention 29_04_02.pdf〉.
199. July 2003; see n. 10.
200. See also: Part III on the Policies and Functioning of the Union (Art III-4) of the Constitution (in essence akin to the present Art. 6 EC-Treaty).
201. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, p. 575.
202. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, Op.cit., pp. 581-587.
203. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, Op.cit., p. 591 (water); p. 593 (waste) and pp. 594-597 (atmospheric/air).
204. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, Op.cit., p. 598.
205. B. Rittberger and J. Richardson, supra n. 29, Op.cit., pp. 601-602.
206. D.J. Fiorino, supra n. 136, p. 467.
207. Ibid.
208. It will depend on the type of pollution, the causal chain of events leading to an excess of pollution and on the "residual liability of the state", whether citizens will be able to effectively pursue their rights.
209. Surely, minimum quality standards at the EC level would not need to be set at the lowest acceptable level.
210. Naturally, this argument could (also) be brought under the umbrella of the subsidiarity principle - see also Art. 9(3) of the new Constitution (and the Protocol on the Application of the Principles of Subsidiarity and Proportionality).
211. See § IV; Interplay and implementation.
212. Most of the debate on good governance is concerned with these - important - questions. See: 〈http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/governance/ index_en.htm 〉.