Kidnapping and state development in the United States

Studies in American Political Development

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 18-44

  Frydl, Kathleen J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33746218390     PISSN: 0898588X     EISSN: 14698692     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0898588X06000022     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. Justine Mansfield, True Tales of Kidnappings: In America, in China, in Mexico (New York: Business Bourse Press, 1932), 16.
2. For recent, historical essays treating the United States, see Ira Katznelson and Martin Shefter, eds., Shaped by War and Trade: International Influences on American Political Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002);
3. for a broader statement, see Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, (Malden, MA: Blackwell Press, 1990);
4. and for a classic and still trenchant analysis, see Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale, 1968).
5. As James Q. Wilson points out, many agencies sharply delimit their "turfs" and refuse expansion of their portfolio; see James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, 1989), esp. 179-95. I speak here of challenges to state legitimacy itself. Although bureaucratic motivations deserve qualification as not always "imperialistic," acute challenges to the power of the state cannot be borne.
6. See Kidnapped: Child Abduction in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
7. New York Times, 19 Jan. 1934, 1.
8. Bryan Burrough, Public Enemies: America's Greatest Crime. Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 1933-34 (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), 194.
9. For an overview see Claire Bond Potter, War on Crime: Bandits, G-Men, and the Politics of Mass Culture (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998),
10. As the title suggests, Potter emphasizes the cultural aspects of this war; she does so with greater understanding of the natural sympathy bandits evoked than Richard G. Powers, G-Men: Hoover's FBI in American Popular Culture (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983). Potter also provides a helpful summary of the New Deal's war on crime, though she portrays the state-building efforts as unambiguously supportive of increased federal power. As we shall see, for some key actors, this was not the case.
11. The term "public enemy" originated with the Chicago Crime Commission in 1930.
12. See especially Erwin G. Hargove, "David Lilienthal and the Tennessee Valley Authority," in Leadership and Innovation: A Biographical Perspective in Entrepreneurs in Government, eels. Jameson W. Doig and Erwin C. Hargove (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1987)
13. on the development of "organizational myths," and, importantly, the work of Daniel P. Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862-1928 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), from which I take the phrase "organizational metaphor."
14. Carpenter, Forging of Bureaucralic Autonomy, 11, 292.
15. Carpenter, Forging of Bureaucralic Autonomy, Ibid., 5.
16. Albert J. Reiss, Jr., and David J. Bordua, "Environment and Organization: A Perspective on the Police," in The Police: Six Sociological Essays, ed. David J. Bordua (New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967), 26.
17. On procedures and outcomes, see especially Wilson, who points out, "It is hard to hold managers accountable for attaining a goal, easy to hold them accountable for conforming to the rules." (Bureaucracy, 131) This observation holds even more force when bureaucratic goals are unattainable.
18. Reiss and Borclua, "Environment and Organization," 30.
19. In his excellent survey A Critical History of Police Reform (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1977), Samuel Walker notes Hoover's simultaneous projection of a professional ethos and the cultivation of a secret police. He is certainly not the first to pick up on this irony, although he does draw useful connections to municipal police (Hague in Jersey City). "In the wrong hands," Walker writes, "the instruments of reform could become the basis of despotism" (70). Here, I stretch these claims out, historicizing the "professionalization" of G-Men as orthogonal to the kidnappers they chased and as part of a larger reshaping of state power, including a resistance to formal, central authority and accountability.
20. See Edward Dean Sullivan, The Snatch Racket (New York: Vanguard Press, 1932), 13, As Sullivan goes on to note, manyabductions were not reported.
21. Qtd. in Edward Dean Sullivan, The Snatch Racket, ibid., 15.
22. The strong coalition of Southern Democrats bent on preserving segregation and the violence upon which it rested dissuaded Franklin Roosevelt from ever supporting legislative attempts to outlaw lynching, or the killing of a person without a trial and, often, for crimes not punishable by death under existing statutes. Short of lynching, it is astonishing the degree to which kidnapping seems to have been relied upon by white vigilantes policing black political organization: see Robin D. G. Kelley, Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).
23. William Helmer, Public Enemies: America's Criminal Past, 1919-1940 (New York: Checkmark Books, 1998), 17,
24. See also Potter, War on Crime, 112.
25. Mansfield, True Tales of Kidnappings, 59-60.
26. Qtd. in Sullivan, Snatch Racket, 15-16.
27. Sullivan, Snatch Racket, Ibid., 46.
28. "Kidnapping: A Rising Menace to the Nation," New York Times, 6 Mar, 1982, xxi.
29. Records of Pinkerton's National Detective Agency, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Box 163.
30. "Charles M. Rosenthal Kidnaping [sic] Case," Records of Pinkerton's National Detective Agency, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Box 163, 25.
31. New York Times, 29 Aug. 1931.
32. "Kidnapping Wave Sweeps the Nation," New York Times, 3 Mar. 1932, 9.
33. One journalist extended his skepticism to the frequency of interstate transportation: see William Seagle, "The American National Police," Harper's Monthly Magazine 169 (1939): 751-61;
34. cited in Walker, A Critical History, 154.
35. "O'Brien Opens War on Kidnap Gangs," Now York Times, 4 Aug. 1933, 3.
36. "Kidnapping Wave Sweeps the Nation," New York Times, 3 Mar. 1932, 9.
37. "40 Chicagoans Guarded From Kidnappers," New York Times, 15 July 1933, 2.
38. "Kidnapping Wave Sweeps the Nation," New York Times, 3 Mar. 1932, 9.
39. Mansfield, True Tales of Kidnappings, 57-58.
40. On the importance of the press see Potter, War on Crime, 125-37
41. and Fass, Kidnapped: Child, Abduction in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) chap. 3.
42. See Potter, War on Crime, 118.
43. "McGee, Kidnapper, Doomed to Death by Missouri Jury," New York Times, 28 July 1933, 1.
44. "McGee, Kidnapper, Doomed to Death by Missouri Jury," New York Times, 1933, 1. Ibid.
45. "Urschel Relates His Own Story," New York Times, 2 Aug. 1933, 4.
46. Speech at the Century of Progress Fair, Chicago, 1933. Found in RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), "Relationship of IACP and the FBI," 166.
47. For a detailed view of "associationalism," see Ellis W. Hawley, The Great War and the Search for Modern Order, A History of the American People and Their Institutions, 1917-1933 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979);
48. Ellis W. Hawley, "Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State', 1921-1928," The Journal of American History 61 (1974): 116-40;
49. and Ellis W. Hawley, "Three Facets of Hooverian Associationalism: Lumber, Aviation, and Movies, 1921-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1981).
50. Hawley, "Three Facets," 99.
51. "Mitchell Declares States Shirk Duty," New York Times, 20 Sept. 1931, 26.
52. "Mitchell Declares States Shirk Duty," New York Times, 1931, 26. Ibid.
53. See also Powers, G-Men, 24.
54. Report of the Committee on Official Lawlessness, National Archives, Records of the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, Record Group 10. "Official Lawlessness," which sounds as if it might be an oxymoron, is a reference to police corruption.
55. "Kidnapping Wave Sweeps the Nation," New York Times, 3 Mar. 1932, 9.
56. "5,000 Federal Men to Aid," New York Times, 14 May 1932.
57. The United States did consider the adoption of a civil code -not surprisingly, under the advocacy of Republicans who also argued for a stronger national government and the creation of a national university. See David and Brierley, Major Legal Systems in the World Today (New York: The Free Press, 1978), 371. Louisiana, with its French legacy, adopted a code; it is the one state to do so.
58. Even as these police forces were given managerial independence from the Home Office in London, they did so on the condition of satisfying the inspection of the Home Office; money came from the central government.
59. See Roger Lane, Policing the City: Boston, 1822-1985 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967);
60. Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981);
61. Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
62. For the formidable but local regulatory context in which police developed - the well-ordered community - see William J. Novak, People's Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
63. "Kidnapping: A Rising Menace to the Nation," New York Times, 6 Mar. 1932.
64. Qtd. in "Kidnapping: A Rising Menace to the Nation," New York Times, 1932. ibid.
65. Sec Powers, G-Men, 11.
66. "5,000 Federal Men to Aid," New York Times, 1932.
67. "For Death Penalty for Kidnappers," New York Times, 19 May 1932;
68. see also Fass, Kidnapped: Child Abduction in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), chap. 3.
69. "Kidnapping Mostly Done by Gangsters," New York Times, 14 May 1933, xx2.
70. "Topics of the Times," New York Times, 15 July 1933.
71. William E Leuchtenburg, "The New Deal and the Analogue of War" in The F.D.R. Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy, ed. Leuchtenburg (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 35-75.
72. rd Cong., 2nd Sess., vol. 78, pt. 1, 451.
73. "Kidnapping Wave: A New Gang Phase," New York Times, 16 July 1933, xx2.
74. "Sees Kidnap Curb in Federal Drive," New York Times, 25 Oct. 1933, 7.
75. "Federal Officers Active in Raids," New York Times, 21 July 1933, 6.
76. "Roosevelt Will Back War on Kidnappers," New York Times, 26 July 1933, 2.
77. add here that historians have emphasized that J. Edgar Hoover feared for his job early on in the Roosevelt administration. See Potter, War on Crime, 120-21,
78. and Powers, G-Men, 185. Both interpret Hoover's subsequent appeals to the popular press as an attempt to save his job (undoubtedly true) and position him as a friend a federal power (as we shall see, not true).
79. Roosevelt Orders War on Kidnapping by Federal Forces," New York Times, 27 July 1933, 1.
80. "Federal Warfare Against Kidnapping Widens its Range," New York Times, 30 July 1933, 1.
81. For conference, see Powers, G-Men, xvi;
82. quote from "Federal Warfare," New York Times, 30 July 1933, 1.
83. As quoted in Walker, A Oritical History, 155.
84. Powers, G-Men, 48.
85. "New Federal Curb On Rackets Urged," New York Times, 7 Aug. 1933, 28.
86. "New Federal Curb On Rackets Urged," New York Times, 1933, 28. Ibid.
87. "Kidnappers Warned of Severe Penalties," New York Times, 9 Aug. 1933, 9.
88. Samuel Hynes, The Growing Seasons (New York: Viking Press, 2003), 56.
89. Samuel Hynes, The Growing Seasons (2003), 56. Ibid.
90. Floyd was pressed to confess to the Kansas City Massacre; instead, ho defiantly announced to the FBI "I ain't telling' you nothing', you son of a bitch," He then left the world with a parting message for the FBI; "Fuck You."
91. Burrough, Public Enemies, 21.
92. Burrough, Public Enemies, ibid., 166.
93. Burrough, Public Enemies, Ibid., 249.
94. Burrough, Public Enemies, Ibid., 344.
95. Burrough, Public Enemies, Ibid., 345.
96. Notes on memo, E. A. Tamm to J. E. Hoover, 18 Jan. 1935, RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 7, Box 21, NARA.
97. "Kelly and his Wife Seized in Memphis in Urschel Case," New York Times, 27 Sept. 1933, 1.
98. "Kelly and his Wife Seized in Memphis in Urschel Case," New York Times, 1933, 1. Ibid.
99. History of Relations Between IACF and the Bureau [hereafter: IACP], 246, RC 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
100. Phrasing of "web he wove" comes from comments of John Snyder discussed below. Oral history interview with John W. Snyder, Secretary of Treasury, 1946-1953, conducted on 28 May 1969. Available on-line at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/snyder40.htm [accessed 29 Sept. 2003].
101. Taken from C. A. Appel to the Director, May 10, 1932. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA.
102. See Athan Theoharis, The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide (Phoenix, AZ: Oiyx Press, 1999), 2.
103. The bulk of primary research in the FBI records done for this article comes from Classification 66, RG 65. For the possibilities (and difficulties) of doing research on the Bureau, see the helpful guide: Theoharis, The FBI.
104. Memo dated Nov. 29, 1929. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA. In an age of prohibition, Treasury agents held much policing power; for quite some time, the Post Office wielded significant policing power.
105. Ibid.
106. Untitled history of the Bureau, comp. by Charles A. Appel, 1931, 26. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA. Hereafter "Appel History."
107. Appel History, 27. Public, private partnerships of this kind were considered desirable by many Progressives; for an in-depth examination of one intriguing example, see Robyn Muncy's analysis of the Children Bureau's partnership with women's clubs in Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), esp. 62 for the comparison with other Progressive agendas.
108. David M. Kennedy, Over Hen: The. First World War and American Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 81.
109. David M. Kennedy, Over Hen: The. First World War and American Society, Ibid., 82.
110. Burrough, Public Enemies,10.
111. Means also escaped a murder rap; see Thomas A. Reppetto, The Blue Parade (New York; The Free Press, 1978), 278.
112. For the image of the "scientist" and his work during this time see Hawley, The Great War, 158.
113. For managerial ethos, see Hawley, The Great War, ibid., chap. 5.
114. A. Hunter Dupree, Science, in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (Cambridge, MA; Belknap Press, 1957), 334.
115. Another important scientific achievement at the federal level during the 1920s was the establishment of the NIH: see Victoria Angela Harden, "Toward a National Institute of Health: The Development of Federal Biomedical Research Policy, 1900-1930," Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1983.
116. Sec Simon A. Cole, Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 239-50.
117. This particular alliance underscores the importance of rioting that the development of national institutions does not take place de novo, as Stephen Skowronek argues, national administrative capability grew in historical context, contestation, and dialogue with private, local, and state (legal and political party) power: see Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
118. The result of this dialectic was, as Skowronek argues and we shall see, federal institutions that lacked "authoritative control and direction" (ibid., 290). Hoover's alliance also bears a resemblance to the post World War II arrangements that influenced the direction of the technocratic: state: see Brian Balogh, "Reorganizing the Organizational Synthesis: Federal-Professional Relations in Modern America," Studies in American Political Development, 5 (1991): 119-72;
119. and Balogh, Chain Reaction: Expert Debate and Public Participation in American Commercial Nuclear Power, 1945-1975 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1991).
120. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA.
121. IACP Report, 39. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
122. From untitled report, by Quigley, 1922: 32 RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
123. For more on the presentation of fingerprint identification as "science," see Cole, Suspect Identities.
124. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 180, National Archives.
125. E. P. Coffey to Mr. Tamm, Jan. 11, 1935, RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 7, Box 21, NARA.
126. A more recent and better known example of an FBI mismatch of fingerprints occurred when the FBI erroneously insisted to incredulous Spanish police that the fingerprints of Portland, Oregon attorney Brandon Mayfield were found at the site of the terrorist bombings in Madrid on Mar. 11, 2004; Mayfield spent two weeks in jail. See Kershaw et al., "Spain and US at Odds on Mistaken Terror Arrest," New York Times, 5 June 2004, A1.
127. "Machine-Gun Ban Goal of Copeland," New York Times, 28 Aug. 1933, 30.
128. Committee on Scientific Assessment of Bullet Lead Elemental Composition Comparison, Forensic Analysis: Weighing Bullet Lead Evidence, Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, National Academy of Sciences (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004).
129. These revelations cannot be separated from their larger context: widespread sloppiness and wrongdoing at criminal labs, including one lab shut down for criminal negligence. See, for example, "Errors at F.B.I. May Be Issue in 3,000 Cases," New York Times, 17 Mar. 2003, A17;
130. and, especially, findings detailed in the Times editorial, "The Unscientific F.B.I. Lab," New York Times, 17 Apr, 1997, A22;
131. and the U.S. Department of Justice Inspector General's report, "The FBI Laboratory: An Investigation into Laboratory Practices and Alleged Misconduct in Explosives-Related and Other Cases," Apr. 1997.
132. Burrough, Public Enemies, 12.
133. See Thomas A. Reppetto, The Blue, Parade (New York: The Free Press, 1978), 293 fn.
134. Summary of recruitment from Nov. 29, 1929. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA.
135. Appel History, 42.
136. Appel History, Ibid., 45-46.
137. Ray Thicker, Collier's Magazine, 19 Aug. 1933.
138. Courtney Ryley Cooper, Ten Thousand, Public Enemies (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1935), 61.
139. Appel History, preface.
140. IACP, 247.
141. IACP, Ibid., 43.
142. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Personnel Selection and Training in the FBI (Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, 1940), 4.
143. Appel History, 45-46.
144. Appel History, 45-46. Ibid.
145. As James Q. Wilson points out, the central file index represented the extension of Hoover's WWI "radical" index to all criminals. See Wilson, Bureaucracy, 97.
146. Appel History, 47.
147. Appel History, 47. Ibid.
148. Walker, A Critical History, 161.
149. Hoover as quoted in IACP, 162. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
150. U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Personnel Selection and Training in the FBI (Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, 1940), intro.
151. Hoover as quoted in IACP, 247.
152. IACP, 164-65. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
153. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid.
154. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid.
155. This aggressive posture modifies the otherwise solid observation of James Q. Wilson that the FBI acted only in response to complainants - such as Mrs. Urschel telephoning - and avoided taking on the portfolios of so-called "victimless" crimes, like drug trafficking. Sec Wilson, Bureaucracy, 108.
156. Bureaucracy, Ibid, emphasis mine.
157. "Why Uncle Sam's Agents Get their Men," New York Times, 19 Aug. 1934, SM4.
158. "Digested History of the Division of Investigation," 12. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 120, NARA.
159. Courtney Ryley Cooper, Ten Thousand Public Enemies (Boston; Little, Brown and Company, 1935), vii.
160. Courtney Ryley Cooper, Ten Thousand Public Enemies, Ibid., 313.
161. IACP, 244. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA. Emphasis mine.
162. Hoover qtd. in IACP, 250, RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
163. IACP, 250, Ibid.
164. Burrough, Public Ememies, 46.
165. On Dillinger, see Burrough, Public Ememies, ibid., 381.
166. Burrough, Public Ememies, Ibid.
167. Baby Face Nelson was placated only when an associate promised to obtain the license plates of FBI men so he could hunt them down in the Future. See Burrough, Public Ememies, ibid., 456.
168. "G-Men Massacre Plotted by Karpis," New York Times, 6 Feb. 1938, 21.
169. Hoover to 1930 IACP convention, 99. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
170. E. A. Tamm to the Director, Jan. 9, 1935. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 7, Box 21, NARA. See also Potter, War on Crime, 114.
171. IACP, 224, RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
172. rd Cong., 2nd Sess., vol. 78, pt. I, 450.
173. For more on this enigmatic senator who would turn into a fierce critic of the New Deal, see Raymond J. Potter, "Royal Samuel Copeland, 1868-1938: A Physician in Politics," Ph.D. diss., Western Reserve University, 1967.
174. Copeland to Charles Wheeler, 201. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
175. IACP, 195.
176. IACP, 204.
177. IACP, Ibid., 315.
178. IACP, Ibid., 180.
179. IACP, Ibid.
180. IACP, Ibid., 204.
181. IACP, Ibid., 249.
182. Criticism of the UCR continues today (with Chicago not filing its local reports), but it began the moment of UCR's inception: See criticisms of Professor Samuel Bass in "Bureau to Continue Crime Data Study," New York Times, 6 Mar. 1932, N2.
183. New York Times, Ibid., 398.
184. F. S. Hutchinson, Chief of Investigation, to Chief Wheeler, Nov. I, 1933, on IACP history, 199. RG 65, Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, (Classification 66-1723, Box 121, NARA.
185. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 200.
186. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, 200. Ibid.
187. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 202.
188. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 203.
189. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 204.
190. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 205-6.
191. Records of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Ibid., 232.
192. Predictably, after having established his power, Hoover's relationship with the IACP would see friction in the postwar years and eventually come into open dispute when the director "blackballed the vote that would have given [police reformer Orlando Wilson] an IACP award." See Eric H. Monkkonen, Crime, Justice, History (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2002), 161.
193. rd Cong., 2nd. Sess., vol. 78, pt. 4, 10590.
194. Senator Copeland, Congressional Record, Ibid.
195. rd Cong., 2nd. Sess., vol. 78, pt. 1, 455.
196. Senator McKellar, Congressional Record, Ibid., 456.
197. IACP history, 295-96, emphasis mine.
198. IACP history, Ibid., 322.
199. IACP history, Ibid., 322.
200. Arthur M. Schelsinger, The Vital Center: The Politics of Frredom (New Brunswick; Transaction Publishers, 1998), 129.
201. The Vital Center: the Politics of Frredom, Ibid., unnumbered footnote on 129.
202. Oral history interview with John W. Snyder, Secretary of Treasury, 1946-1953, conducted on May 28, 1969. Available on-line at http://www. trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/snyder40.htm [accessed 29 Sept. 2003].
203. Charles Tilly, ""War Making and State Making as Organized Crime," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 169, 173.
204. Bartholomew H. Sparrow, From the Outside In: World War II and the American State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 16.
205. As quoted in Appel's history of the FBI, 403.
206. See Frederic Wakeman, Jr., Policing Shanghai, 1927-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 62.
207. On "myths" sec Hargovc, "David Lilienthal,"; on attentiveness to symbols see Milton Cooper, Jr., "Glifford Pinchot," in Frederic Wakeman, Jr., Policing Shanghai, 1927-1937 ibid.
208. James Q. Wilson notes that the FBI resisted taking on narcotics because of a "desire to avoid taking on a task already performed by other organizations that would then become its rivals." (Bureaucracy, 189) This is a key point, and it demonstrates that Hoover preferred to position his organization at the boundary between legal and illegal worlds.
209. Reiss and Bordua, "Environment and Organization," 36.
210. For city police grappling with a "public relations problem" at a laggard but discernible pace from the FBI, see Robert M. Fogelson, Big City Police (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 147-66.
211. Wilson, Bureaucracy, 162.
212. Wilson, Bureaucracy, Ibid.
213. For an overview of the institutional effects of the loss of both inmate labor and rehabilitation approaches see Rebecca McLennan, "Punishment's 'Square Deal': Prisoners and Their Keepers in 1920s New York," Journal of Urban History 29 (2003); 597-619.
214. See Estelle B. Freedman, "Separatism Revisited: Women's Institutions, Social Reform, and the Career of Miriam Van Waters," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 170-88.
215. Influential formulations include; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1992);
216. Skowronek, Building a New American State,
217. cited above; and Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Although not an attempt to explain American political development, it is worth noting the attention that James Q. Wilson pays a good deal of attention to internal security agencies in Bureaucracy.
218. Novak, The People's Welfare.
219. The persistence of state and local power in the development of national power has been emphasized by Skowronek, Building a New American State,
220. and remains a vigorously argued and well-supported point in literature devoted to the development of social policy, including the works of Suzanne Mettler, Dividing Citizens: Gender and Federalism in New Deal Public Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998),
221. Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998);
222. Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994);
223. on the importance of local/state power to community development, see Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003);
224. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
225. "quis custodiet ipsos custodes?" Decimus Junius Juvenalis, Satire VI.
226. Karl Mannheim, Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction (London: Paul, Trench, and Traubner, 1940), 71, 79.
227. Tilly, "War Making," 171.