Psychology and the construction of the 'normal' family in postwar Canada, 1945-60

Canadian Historical Review

Volumn 78, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 442-477

  Gleason, Mona ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33746087830     PISSN: 00083755     EISSN: 17101093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/CHR.78.3.442     Document Type: Review

References (224)

1. Robert Macleod, 'Can Psychological Research Be Planned on a National Scale?' Canadian Journal of Psychology 1, 4 (Dec. 1947): 190
2. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, School for Parents: A Series of Talks Given on the National Network of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (Toronto: National Committee for Mental Hygiene 1945);
3. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, The Soldier's Return (Toronto: Publications Branch 1945);
4. Canadian Youth Commission, Youth, Marriage and the Family (Ottawa 1945);
5. S.R. Laycock, Education for a Post-War World (Toronto: Home and School Association 1945);
6. Karl Bernhardt, 'Tomorrow's Citizens,' Parent Education Bulletin 40 (1947): 2-5;
7. Brock Chisholm, 'Tell Them the Truth,' Maclean's, 15 Jan. 1946, 42-4;
8. Benjamin Spock, 'What We Know about the Development of Healthy Personalities in Children,' Canadian Welfare 27, 15 April 1951, 3-12;
9. C. Wesley Topping, 'How to Stay Married,' Chatelaine, Feb. 1946, 10-11, 47;
10. A.P. Luscombe Whyte, 'Psychologists Go to War,' National Home Monthly, 44 Nov. 1943, 12-13, 22
11. Often negatively associated with communist tendencies, homosexuality and homosexuals were especially demonized in the paranoid political climate of the Cold War era in Canada. See especially Gary Kinsman, The Regulation of Desire: Sexuality in Canada (Montreal: Black Rose Books 1987);
12. Daniel J. Robinson and David Kimmel, 'The Queer Career of Homosexual Security Vetting in Cold War Canada,' Canadian Historical Review 74 (1994): 319-45;
13. and Gerard Philip, 'From Subversion to Liberation: Homosexuals and the Immigration Act, 1952-1977,' Canadian Journal of Law and Society 2 (1987): 1-27.
14. The political threat of women's sexuality is explored in Donna Penn, 'The Sexualized Woman: The Lesbian, the Prostitute, and the Containment of Women's Sexuality in Postwar America,' in Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1946-1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1994), 358-81;
15. Mary Louise Adams details postwar discourses about concern for youth and 'normal' sexuality in 'Youth, Corruptibility, and English-Canadian Campaigns against Indecency, 1948-1955,' Journal of the History of Sexuality 6, 1 (1995): 89-119;
16. see also Mary Louise Adams, 'The Trouble with Normal: Postwar Youth and the Construction of Heterosexuality' (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto 1994).
17. Franca Iacovetta, 'Remaking Their Lives: Women Immigrants, Survivors, and Refugees,' in Joy Parr, ed., A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1995), 135-67;
18. Valerie Knowles, Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Canadian Immigration Policy, 1540-1990 (Toronto: Dundurn Press 1992), 118-136
19. Jocelyn Motyer Raymond, The Nursery World of Dr. Blatz (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1991), 3-24
20. Gordon A. McMurray, 'Psychology at Saskatchewan,' in Mary J. Wright and C.R. Myers, eds., History of Academic Psychology in Canada (Toronto: C.J. Hofrefe 1982), 181-2;
21. Theresa R. Richardson, The Century of the Child: The Mental Hygiene Movement and Social Policy in the United States and Canada (New York: State University of New York Press 1989), 156
22. Mary L. Northway, 'Child Study in Canada: A Casual History,' in Lois M. Brockman, John H. Whiteley, and John R. Zubek, eds., Child Development: Selected Readings (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1973), 22-23
23. Raymond, The Nursery World of Dr. Blatz, 144, 200
24. Karl Bernhardt, 'Canadian Psychology: Past, Present and Future,' Canadian Journal of Psychology 1, 2 (1947): 57
25. Rux Martin, 'Truth, Power, Self: An Interview with Michel Foucault,' in Martin H. Luther, Huck Gutman, and P. Hutton, eds., Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1988), 15;
26. John Newson and Elizabeth Newson, 'Cultural Aspects of Childrearing in the English-Speaking World,' in M.P.M. Richards, The Integration of the Child into a Social World (London: Cambridge University Press 1973), 52-65;
27. Andrew Abbott, The Systems of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1988)
28. As Mariana Valverde observes, 'social regulation is best understood not as the control of already distinct areas of social activity but rather as a process which first constitutes the object to be administered.' 'Representing Childhood: The Multiple Fathers of the Dionne Quintuplets,' in Carol Smart, ed., Regulating Womanhood: Historical Essays on Marriage, Motherhood and Sexuality (London: Routledge Press 1992), 19, 143
29. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Pantheon 1977), 177-184
30. In the army, psychologists conducted mental testing on potential officers. Not until 1941, however, was psychological screening for all new recruits introduced. For more on psychology's involvement in the Canadian Army during the Second World War, see Terry Copp and William McAndrew, Battle Exhaustion: Soldiers and Psychiatrists in the Canadian Army, 1939-1945 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1990);
31. Allan English, 'Canadian Psychologists and the Aerodrome of Democracy,' Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne 33, 4 (Oct. 1992): 663-72;
32. Geoffrey Hayes, 'Science versus the "Magic Eye": Innovations in the Selection of Canadian Army Officers, 1942-1945,' Armed Forces and Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal 22, 2 (1995-6): 275-295
33. Dorothy Chunn, From Punishment to Doing Good: Family Courts and Socialized Justice in Ontario, 1880-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1992), 37-9, 167;
34. Beth L. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1988), 119-25;
35. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: The American Family in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books 1988), 27-8, 187;
36. Janet Walker, 'Intervention in Families,' in D. Clarke, ed., Marriage, Domestic Life and Social Change: Writings for Jacqueline Burgoyne, 1944-1988 (New York: Routledge Press 1991);
37. Douglas Owram, 'Home and Family at Mid-Century,' paper presented to the Canadian Historical Association conference, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, 1992
38. J.S.A. Bois, 'The Psychologist as Counsellor,' Canadian Journal of Psychology 2, 3 (Sept. 1948): 121.
39. Generally, both psychologists and their clients were referred to as 'he' unless addressing a specific case involving a female. Although it was a male-dominated profession, women did act as psychologists, especially during the Second World War. See Mary Wright, 'Women Ground-breakers in Canadian Psychology: World War ii and Its Aftermath,' Canadian Psychology/psychologie canadienne 33, 4 (Oct. 1992): 674-682
40. Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World (New York: Basic Books 1977)
41. Chunn, From Punishment to Doing Good, 192-193
42. David Ingleby, 'The Psychology of Child Psychology,' in Richards, The Integration of the Child into a Social World, 296;
43. see also Ruby Takanishi, 'Childhood as a Social Issue: Historical Roots of Contemporary Child Advocacy Movements,' Journal of Social Issues 34, 2 (1978): 8-27;
44. Kathleen Janet McConnachie, 'Science and Ideology: The Mental Hygiene and Eugenics Movement in the Inter-war Years, 1919-1939' (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto 1987);
45. Fred Matthews, 'The Utopia of Human Relations: The Conflict Free Family of American Social Thought, 1930-1960,' Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences 24 (Oct. 1988): 343-62;
46. Cathy Urwin and Valerie Walkerdine, eds., Language, Gender, and Childhood (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1985), 164-202.
47. Matthews, 'The Utopia of Human Relations,' 343
48. I refer here to Foucault's phrase 'technologies of the self.' Foucault explains the evolution of discipline as a movement from physical punishment of the body to incarceration and surveillance. Over the course of this evolution, discipline becomes internalized and self-perpetuating. We cooperate, are coerced, and willingly conform, all technologies of the self, to forces exercising various degrees of control over our free will. See Martin, 'Truth, Power, Self,' 15;
49. Martin Hewitt, 'Bio-Politics and Social Policy: Foucault's Account of Welfare,' in M. Featherstone, Mike Hepworth, and Bryan S. Turner, eds., The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory (London: Sage Publications 1991), 225-256
50. In 'Family Matters: The Canadian Family and the State in Postwar Canada,' left history 1, 2 (1993): 9-50, Annalee Gölz suggests that 'socio-economic and gender dislocations' after the Depression and the war spawned a 'concerted effort' to 'restabilize' the family.
51. See also Adams, 'Youth, Corruptibility, and English-Canadian Postwar Campaigns against Indecency, 1948-1955,' 93-96
52. Jane Ursel, Private Lives, Public Policy: 100 Years of State Intervention in the Family (Toronto: Women's Press, 1992), 205-6;
53. Cynthia Comacchio, 'Nations Are Built of Babies': Saving Ontario's Mothers and Children, 1900-1940 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1993);
54. James G. Snell, In the Shadow of the Law: Divorce in Canada, 1900-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1991), 28
55. Jacques Donzelot, The Policing of Families (New York: Pantheon Books 1979);
56. Carolyn Dean, The Self and Its Pleasures: Batallie, Lacan, and the History of the Decentred Subject (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1992)
57. The American literature is extensive. Some of the most cogent studies include Meyerowitz, ed., Not June Cleaver;
58. Arlene Skolnick, Embattled Paradise: The American Family in an Age of Uncertainty (New York: Basic Books 1991);
59. May, Homeward Bound;
60. James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America's Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press 1986);
61. Wini Breines, 'Domineering Mothers of the 1950s: Image and Reality,' Women's Studies International Forum 8, 6 (1985): 601-6;
62. Estelle B. Freedman,' "Uncontrolled Desires": The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920-1960,' Journal of American History 74, 1 (1987): 83-106.
63. Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage, 4.
64. On the cyclical nature of family breakdown in the United States, see also Arlene Skolnick, 'A Cultural Earthquake,' in Embattled Paradise, 1-18.
65. Parr, ed., A Diversity of Women;
66. Adams, 'Youth, Corruptibility, and English-Canadian Campaigns against Indecency';
67. France Iacovetta, 'Making "New Canadians": Social Workers, Women and the Reshaping of Immigrant Families,' in Franca Iacovetta and Mariana Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts: New Essays in Women's History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1992), 273;
68. Charles M. Johnson, 'The Children's War: The Mobilization of Ontario Youth during the Second World War,' in Roger Hall, William Westfall, and Laurel Sefton McDowell, eds., Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History (Toronto: Dundurn Press 1988), 365-6;
69. Gölz, 'Family Matters,' 24-6;
70. Owram, 'Home and Family at Mid-Century';
71. Veronica Strong-Boag, 'Home Dreams: Women and the Suburban Experiment in Canada, 1945-1960,' Canadian Historical Review 72, 4 (1991): 471-504
72. Similar caveats are offered in Mariana Valverde, 'Building Anti-Delinquent Communities: Morality, Gender, and Generation in the City,' in Parr, ed., Diversity of Women, 19-45;
73. Adams, 'Youth, Corruptibility, and English-Canadian Postwar Campaigns against Indecency,' 89-117.
74. Veronica Strong-Boag, 'Canada's Wage Earning Wives and the Construction of the Middle-Class, 1945-1960,' Journal of Canadian Studies 29, 3 (1974): 5-25;
75. Joan Sangster, 'Doing Two Jobs: The Wage-Earning Mother, 1945-1970,' in Parr, ed., A Diversity of Women, 98-134;
76. Susan M. Hartmann, 'Women's Employment and the Domestic Ideal in the Early Cold War Years,' in Meyerowitz, ed., Not June Cleaver, 84-101
77. Strong-Boag, 'Home Dreams,' 471-504,
78. and '"Their Side of the Story": Women's Voices from Ontario's Suburbs, 1945-1960,' in Joy Parr, ed., A Diversity of Women, 46-74
79. Franca Iacovetta, Such Hardworking People: Italian Immigrants in Postwar Toronto (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1992)
80. and 'Remaking Their Lives,' 135-167
81. George Kisker, 'Why You Fight with Your Wife/Husband,' Maclean's, 60 1 Aug. 1947, 1, 36-7;
82. Paul Popenoe, 'First Aid for the Family,' Maclean's, 60 1 May 1947; 19;
83. Topping, 'How to Stay Married,' 10, 11, 47.
84. Mildred Horn, Mothers and Daughters: A Digest for Women and Girls, which Completely Covers the Field of Sex Hygiene (Toronto: Hygienic Productions 1946), 91.
85. Despite the absence of documented sources, Horn contends that 'one highschool in a small town with an enrollment of 68 girls reported 53 pregnancies in one year ... another school with 281 girls reported 112 pregnant between the opening of school in September and Christmas holidays'; Kisker, 'Why You Fight with Your Wife/Husband,' 37;
86. Sidney Katz, 'Are We Growing More Cruel to Our Children?' Maclean's, 61 15 July 1948, 42;
87. Lotta Dempsey, 'We the People vs. The Sex Criminal,' Chatelaine, Jan. 1948, 6.
88. See also the discussion of sexual delinquency in the 1950s in Christabelle Laura Sethna, 'The Facts of Life: The Sex Instruction of Ontario Public School Children' (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto 1993), 262-269
89. Becki L. Ross, The House That Jill Built: A Lesbian Nation in Formation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1995), 12-15;
90. W.D. Ross, 'Mental Hygiene and Reconstruction,' Public Affairs 6, 4 (1943): 200;
91. Dyson Carter, 'Treating Our Minds Tomorrow,' National Home Monthly, Dec. 1944, 11;
92. Samuel Laycock, 'What Can we Do About Juvenile Delinquency?' in Education for a Post-War World, 84,
93. and 'What Are Families For?' National Parent-Teacher 41, 3 (Nov. 1946): 10;
94. C.M. Hincks, 'Postwar Women,' in CBC, The Soldier's Return, 17
95. The text of the radio program reappeared in J.D. Ketchum, 'The Family: Changing Patterns in an Industrial Society,' in Canadian Family Study, 1957-1960 (Toronto: Canadian Home and School and Parent-Teacher Federation 1961), 16.
96. Anonymous, 'Simple Rules for Mental Health,' Canadian Congress Journal 21 (Aug. 1942): 109
97. J.D.M. Griffin, S.R. Laycock, and W. Line, Mental Hygiene: A Manual for Teachers (New York: American Book Company 1940), 9. Emphasis in original. In most of the psychologists' advice surveyed in this study, the generic term 'child' or 'children' is equated with the masculine 'he.'
98. University of Saskatchewan Archives (usa), Samuel Laycock Papers, Publications - Articles and Addresses, No. 271, 'Radio Address - Mental Hygiene in the School and Home,' (nd), 4
99. James M. Pitsula, Let the Family Flourish: A History of the Family Service Bureau of Regina, 1913-1982 (Regina: Family Service Bureau of Regina 1982), 72
100. Canada, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Canada Year Book, 1945 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1945), 150-1;
101. Canada Year Book, 1950 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1950), 232
102. Canada Year Book, 1955 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1955), 224
103. Canada Year Book, 1960 (Ottawa: King's Printer 1960), 254
104. Snell, In the Shadow of the Law, 9-10
105. V. Lorne Stewart, 'Family Breakdown,' in Canadian Family Study, 1957-1960, 10-11;
106. Journalist Max Braithwaite, in an interesting twist to this postwar discussion, argued that the Canadian family was strong, despite 'doleful pronouncements of hundreds of speakers and writers who keep hinting, insinuating and even declaring outright that the good old institution of the family is on the skids.' Braithwaite, 'The Family Is Here to Stay,' Chatelaine, Oct. 1951, 110
107. S.R. Laycock, 'New Approaches to Sex Education,' The School, Dec. 1945, 312,
108. and 'Psychological Factors in Marriage,' The Prairie Messenger 28 (Jan. 1950): 1;
109. Harry C. McKown, A Boy Grows Up (New York: McGraw-Hill 1949), 300. Although an American publication, McKown's book was recommended for guidance training in Laycock's Educational Psychology courses at the University of Saskatchewan.
110. Laycock, 'Psychological Factors in Marriage,' 12
111. Northway, 'Child Study in Canada,' 14;
112. S.R. Laycock, 'How Parents Hinder Their Adolescents' Adjustment to the Opposite Sex,' Understanding the Child 14, 2 (1945): 35-39
113. Canada Year Book, 1950, 227-229
114. Canada Yearbook, 1955, 220-221
115. Canada Yearbook, 1960, 261
116. Alison Prentice et al., Canadian Women: A History (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1988), 311;
117. Kay Montgomery, 'Family Relations in B.C.,' National Home Monthly, July 1945, 27
118. Paul Popenoe, 'First Aid for the Family,' Maclean's, 1 May 1947, 19, 45, 47.
119. Popenoe, Angus McLaren reminds us, was an early proponent of the eugenics movement in the United States. McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1990)
120. Karl Bernhardt, 'The Father in the Family,' Bulletin of the Institute of Child Study 19, 2 (1957): 2;
121. Guy Roche, 'Le Père,' Food for Thought 14, 6 (March 1954): 9;
122. McKown, A Boy Grows Up, 203
123. Ketchum, 'The Family,' 19
124. S.R. Laycock, 'What Are Families For?' Canadian Home and School 6, 2 (1946): 10,
125. and 'Psychological Factors in Marriage,' 10;
126. Harold W. Bernard, Mental Hygiene for Classroom Teachers (New York: McGraw-Hill 1952), 4.
127. Bernard's book was recommended reading for Canadian teachers-in-training. William Blatz, Understanding the Young Child (Toronto: Clarke, Irwin 1944), 127, 240;
128. Karl Bernhardt, What It Means to Be a Good Parent (Toronto: Institute of Child Study 1950), 2;
129. Baruch Silverman and Herbert R. Matthews, 'On Bringing Up Children,' Canadian Home and School 10, 1 (1950): 5
130. Bernhardt, 'Canadian Psychology,' 58
131. William Blatz, 'Why Husbands and Wives Nag Each Other,' Chatelaine, Nov. 1955, 17
132. Canada Up the Years from One to Six (Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare 1961), 80. Emphasis in original
133. Horn, Mothers and Daughters, 33
134. W.E. Blatz, 'The Greatest Menace to Marriage Today,' Chatelaine, Oct. 1955, 13, 119, 120-1, 123;
135. 'Why Husbands and Wives Nag Each Other,' 16-17, 82-4;
136. 'Why You Bore Your Husband,' Chatelaine, March 1956, 21, 53-6;
137. Blatz, 'Why You Should Never Quarrel with Your Husband,' 11
138. Blatz's own forty-year marriage to Margery Rowland ended in 1960. Jocelyn Motyer Raymond suggests that the decision to do so had been made early in their married lives and was to take place after their daughter, Margery, nicknamed Gery, had grown. They were reportedly 'devoted parents and each other's good friends, willingly taking the consequences of an earlier, younger decision in order to give their daughter a stable childhood' The Nursery World of Dr. Blatz, 197
139. E.B., Ottawa, 'Quarrels Beat the "Road Blocks": Letters to Chatelaine,' Chatelaine, Jan. 1957, 2
140. USA, Samuel Laycock Papers, Publications: Articles and Addresses, 'Psychological Factors in Marriage,' 1951, 4
141. Linda Ambrose has suggested that fear and paranoia over communism and fascism, along with postwar opportunities for work, made young people a presumably volatile and unpredictable population in the eyes of some governmental and social leaders in these years. Mary Louise Adams has focused our attention on the opportunity for moral and sexual regulation that discourses about the 'corruptibility' of youth presented. See Linda McGuire Ambrose, 'The Canadian Youth Commission: Planning for Youth and Social Welfare in the Postwar Era' (PhD dissertation, University of Waterloo 1992), especially chapter 1,
142. 'Approaches to Youth: The Context of the cyc,' 30-66;
143. Valverde, 'Building Anti-Delinquent Communities,' 19-20
144. Johnson, 'The Children's War,' 366
145. Augustine Brannigan, 'Mystification of the Innocents: Crime Comics and Delinquency in Canada, 1931-1949,' Criminal Justice History 7 (1986): 110-44,
146. and 'Delinquency, Comic and Legislative Reform in Postwar Canada and Victoria,' Australian-Canadian Studies 3 (1985): 53-69;
147. Janice Dickin McGinnis, 'Bogeymen and the Law: The Crime Comic and Pornography,' Ottawa Law Review 20, 1 (1988): 3-25;
148. Mona Gleason, 'Disciplining Children, Disciplining Parents: The Nature and Meaning of Psychological Advice to Canadian Parents, 1948-1955,' historie sociale/Social History 29, 57 (1996): forthcoming.
149. The standard definition of juvenile delinquency in the postwar years was taken from the 1949 Encyclopedia of Criminology. It defined the term as 'habitual truancy from home or school; conduct that injures or endangers the morality or health of others; infractions of laws; and habitual disobedience or waywardness that is uncontrolled by parent, guardian or custodian.' See, for example, Roberta M. Bruce, 'Parent-Child Relationships of 23 Delinquent, Adolescent Girls: A study of the emotional factors in parent-child relationships of 23 adolescent girls referred to the Mental Hygiene Institute and of the role of the social worker in the treatment plan' (MSW, McGill University 1951), 4.
150. Laycock, Education for a Post-War World, 94;
151. J. Alex Edmison, 'Gang Delinquency,' Canadian Forum 29 (April 1949): 7.84
152. See, for example, Bernhardt, What It Means to Be a Good Parent, 7-8;
153. Samuel Laycock, 'Development of a Normal Personality,' British Columbia Parent-Teacher News 11, 4 (1949): 4. The basic psychological needs repeated by psychologists over the course of the postwar period included the need for affection, belonging, independence, social approval, self-esteem, and creative achievement.
154. Samuel Laycock, for example, wrote that a 'great deal of delinquency is due to the fact that the child does not feel emotionally secure in his own home,' in 'Discipline and Supervision: How Much Freedom?' Home and School Quarterly 14, 1 (1945): 6.
155. Rocher, 'Le Père,' 6-10;
156. W.B. Baker, 'A Home on the Prairie,' 22-6;
157. Laycock,'What Are Families For?' 8-10;
158. Canadian Family Study, 1957-1960, 28-33
159. University of Toronto, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Room, William Blatz Collection, ms 134, box 25, Parent Education Courses, 1928-1951, 'The Modern Home,' 13 Jan. 1941
160. The Canadian Youth Commission, for example, debated rigorously on the nature of these and other factors in shaping family life after the war. Ambrose, 'The Canadian Youth Commission,' 212-248
161. S.R. Laycock, 'Parents Are Such Problems,' Maclean's, 15 Oct. 1946, 13;
162. Baker, 'A Home on the Prairie,' 22-6;
163. For discussions of the importance of sentiment in family life in Canada in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, see Peter Ward, Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Nineteenth-Century English Canada (Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1990);
164. Comacchio, 'Nations Are Built of Babies.'
165. Classic studies which trace the importance of attachment and rejection in family life include Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of the Family (New York: Knopf 1962);
166. Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (New York: Basic Books 1975);
167. Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500 - 1800 (London: Weiderfled and Nicolson 1977);
168. Michael Anderson, Approaches to the History of the Western Family, 1500 - 1914 (London: MacMillan 1980).
169. Morton Hunt, The Story of Psychology (New York: Anchor Books 1993);
170. Arnold Gesell, Child Development: An Introduction to the Study of Human Growth (New York: Harper & Row 1949);
171. The First Five Years of Life: A Guide to the Study of Preschool Children (London: Metheun 1959);
172. Jean Piaget, The Moral Judgement of the Child, translated by Marjorie Gabain (Glencoe: Free Press 1948),
173. and Judgement and Reasoning in the Child, with E. Certalis (New Jersey: Littlefeld, Adams 1959);
174. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on Sexuality (New York: Avon 1965)
175. See, for example, S.R. Laycock, 'Every Child Brings His Home to School,' Alberta School Trustee 13, 12 (June 1943): 23,
176. 'Educating the Six-to-Twelve-Year-Old for Family Living,' Canadian Home and School 10 (March 1951): 22,
177. and 'What Can We Do about Juvenile Delinquency?' 82;
178. Marguerite W. Brown, It Takes Time to Grow (Toronto: Board of Christian Education, Women's Missionary Society of the United Church of Canada 1953);
179. S.C.T. Clarke and J.G. Woodsworth, Youth and Tomorrow: A Guide to Personal Development in the Early and Middle Teens (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1956);
180. Blatz, Understanding the Young Child.
181. Clarke and Woodsworth, Youth and Tomorrow, 6
182. Department of National Health and Welfare, You and Your Family (Ottawa: Information Services Division Department, National Health and Welfare 1949), 35
183. Evelyn Marie Roberts, 'Mental Health Clinical Services: A Study of Children between 6 and 12 years of age examined by the Mental Health Clinics in Vancouver from 1945 to 1947 inclusive' (MSW, University of British Columbia 1949), 31
184. Robert O. Jones, 'Good Parents,' in School for Parents: A Series of Talks Given on the National Network of the CBC (Toronto: National Committee for Mental Hygiene (1944), 2
185. See Donald G. Finlay, 'The Mother-Child Relationship after Treatment in a Child Guidance Clinic' (M.A. thesis, University of Toronto 1955);
186. M. Prados, 'On Promoting Mental Health,' Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 2, 1 (1957): 44
187. Finlay, 'The Mother-Child Relationship,' 6. The concept of maternal instinct, the notion that women have a 'natural' desire to have and nurture children that is inextricable meshed with the dictates of their bodies, has had a long articulation in Canada, especially among doctors. The adherence to this belief - that a woman's bond with children is 'naturally' stronger than a man's because of biology - has been used to justify both the exclusion of women from the public realm and women's politicization of the private.
188. See Wendy Mitchinson, The Nature of Their Bodies: Women and Their Doctors in Victorian Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1991), especially chapters 1, 2;
189. Carol Bacchi, Liberation Deferred? The Ideas of the English-Canadian Suffragists, 1877-1918 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1983).
190. Andrée Lévesque, Making and Breaking the Rules: Women in Quebec, 1919-1939, translated by Yvonne M. Klein (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1994), 24;
191. Evelyn M. Brown, Educating Eve (Montreal: Palm Publishers 1957), 7
192. For more on the experts' construction of motherhood, see especially Katherine Arnup, Education for Motherhood: Advice for Mothers in Twentieth-Century Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1994).
193. William Blatz and Helen Bott, Parents and the Pre-School Child (Toronto: Dent 1928), viii
194. Samuel Laycock, 'Parent Education Is Adult Education,' Food for Thought 5, 3 (Dec. 1944): 4-5.
195. A similar view is expressed in Ella Kendall Cork, A Home of Her Own (Canada: National Girls' Work Board of the Religious Council of Canada 1944), 54
196. Anonymous, 'Some Data on Mental Health Problems in Canadian Schools,' Canadian Education 3, 2 (1948): 24-27
197. Bruce, 'Parent-Child Relationships of 23 Delinquent Adolescent Girls,' 2
198. Benjamin Spock, Baby and Child Care (New York: Pocket Books 1946), 166.
199. Since its appearance, the book has sold thirty million copies. Katherine Arnup has found that while exact sales figures for Canada are difficult to determine, a test marketing of the pocket edition, blamed by Montreal doctor Alton Goldbloom for undermining the sales of his hard-copy manual, sold 3000 copies within six weeks. The New York publisher recommended an initial run of 100,000 copies for the Canadian market. Arnup, 'Education for Motherhood: Women and Family in Twentieth-Century Canada' (PhD thesis, University of Toronto 1991), 128
200. Mary Frank and Lawrence K. Frank, How to Help Your Child in School (New York: Signet Books 1950), 121-122 Although an American publication, the Frank manual was recommended to Canadian parents by Samuel Laycock and in governmental publications on childrearing.
201. Janice Drakich, 'In Search of the Better Parent: The Social Construction of Ideologies of Fatherhood,' Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 3, 1 (1989): 73;
202. Report of the Research Symposium on Mental Health and Child Development, given to the Section on the Mental Health of Childhood and Youth of the Fifth International Congress on Mental Health, University of Toronto, August 1954, 5-6
203. Irma Simonton Black, Off to a Good Start: A Handbook for Parents (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company 1953), 101-2,
204. recommended reading in 'A Selective List of Books, Pamphlets and Films on Parent Education,' Food for Thought 12 (Nov. 1951): 66-8. Food for Thought was the official organ of the Adult Education Association of Canada.
205. Anna W.M. Wolf, The Parent's Manual: A Guide to the Emotional Development of Young Children (New York: Simon and Schuster 1946), 216-17,
206. recommended reading, for example, in 'A Selective List of Books,' 66-68
207. Lee Edward Travis and Dorothy Walter Baruch, Problems of Everyday Life: Practical Aspects of Mental Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton-Century 1944), 233,
208. recommended in 'A Selective List,' 66-68
209. Frank and Frank, How to Help Your Child in School, 122
210. Stephanie Shields and Beth Koster, 'Emotional Stereotyping of Parents in Child Rearing Manuals, 1915-1980,' Social Psychology Quarterly 52, 1 (1989): 50
211. Karl S. Bernhardt, 'The Father in the Family,' Bulletin of the Institute of Child Study 19, 2 (1957): 4
212. Prados, 'On Promoting Mental Health,' 45
213. Shields and Koster, 'Emotional Stereotyping of Parents,' 51
214. Brown, It Takes Time to Grow, 65;
215. see also Shirley Braverman, 'The Father's Role in a Child Guidance Clinic' (MSW, McGill University 1951), 1
216. This idea was also used to justify female teachers' relegation to overseeing lower grades and young children throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth century. So powerful was this discourse regarding women's nurturing tendencies that women teachers themselves often accepted their often undervalued positions as 'natural.' Alison Prentice and Marjorie R. Theobald, 'The Historiography of Women Teachers: A Retrospect, ' in Alison Prentice and Marjorie R. Theobald, Women Who Taught: Perspectives on the History of Women and Teaching (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1994), 6
217. Franca Iacovetta, 'Making "New Canadians": Social Workers, Women and Reshaping of Immigrant Families,' in Iacovetta and Valverde, eds., Gender Conflicts, 263;
218. Iacovetta, Such Hardworking People
219. See especially chapter 3, 'Men, Work, and the Family Economy,' 52-76,
220. and chapter 4, 'From Contadina to Women Workers,' 77-102.
221. J.R. Miller, Shingwauk's Vision: A History of Native Residential Schooling (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1996)
222. Travis and Baruch, Personal Problems of Everyday Life, 130-1;
223. Laycock, 'Parents are Such Problems,' 13
224. Abbott, The Systems of Professions, 30