Internal exclusion, external inclusion: Diaspora politics and party-building strategies in post-communist Hungary

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 20, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 483-515

  Waterbury, Myra A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Diaspora; FIDESZ; Hungary; Nationalism; Party politics

Indexed keywords

EID: 33746074046     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: 15338371     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325405280897     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Also known as the "Benefit Law," and officially as the Law Concerning Hungarians Living In Neighboring Countries, no. LXII of 2001. Available at http://www.mfa.gov.hu/NR/rdonlyres/9F859809-1496-4602-9337- 252P438BBA5B/0/statustva.htm (accessed 3 December 2003). The vote passed by 92 percent.
2. HTM represents the phrase "határon túili magyarok, "which can be translated as "Hungarians beyond the border." This acronym will be used herein for the sake of brevity and to reflect the Hungarian framing of the category.
3. Paragraph 6, article 3 of the Hungarian constitution states that "the Hungarian government feels responsible for the fate of the Hungarians living beyond the borders, and it should promote the care of their relationship with Hungary,"
4. Miklós Zeidler, "Irredentism in Everyday Life in Hungary during the Inter-war Period," Regio (2002): 71-88.
5. See also Raphael Vago, The Grandchildren of Trianon: Hungary and the Hungarian Minority in the Communist States (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1989), 5-42.
6. See George Schöpflin, "Transylvania: Hungarians under Romanian Rule," and Andrew Ludanyi, "The Hungarians of Vojvodina under Yugoslav Rule," in Stephen Borsody, ed., The Hungarians: A Divided Nation (New Haven, CT: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1988).
7. Andrew Ludanyi, "Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening: Hungarian Minorities in International Politics, 1945-1989," in Ignác Romsics, ed., 20th Century Hungary and the Great Powers (Boulder, CO, Highland Lakes, NJ: Social Science Monographs; Atlantic Research and Publications, Inc.; New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1995).
8. János Kis, Politics in Hungary: For a Democratic Alternative, trans. Gábor J. Follinus (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1989), 201.
9. László Deme, "Liberal Nationalism in Hungary," East European Quarterly 32:(1998): 57-82.
10. See Rudolf L. Tokés, Hungary's Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957-7990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 185-200, for a detailed discussion of the Hungarian Democratic Forum's (MDF's) political involvement with HTM advocacy in the 1980s.
11. This statement was extremely controversial because the rest of the Hungarians he was referring to were those living In neighboring countries and in the global Hungarian diaspora. See Margit Bessenyey Williams, "European Integration and Minority Rights: The Case of Hungary and Its Neighbors," in Ronald H. Linden, ed., Norms and Nannies: The Impact of International Organizations on the Central and East European States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 230-31 and fn. 24.
12. Interview in Népszava with Miklós Duray, "Duray Criticizes Hungarian Foreign Ministries," Foreign Broadcast Information Service - Eastern Europe (FBIS-EEU), 5 January 1995, 9.
13. Such as the meetings of the World Congress of Hungarians (MVSZ), through the Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad (HTMH). the Hungarian Human Rights Foundation, and public foundations, as well as through less formal channels.
14. János Hargitai, Federation of Young Democrats (FIDESZ) representative and then-speaker of the Budget and Economic Affairs Committee of Parliament, speaking during the 19 April 2001 parliamentary debate on the Status Law draft, "A határon túli magyarokról sźló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája, 2001 április 19" [Parliamentary Debate about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living In Neighboring Countries, 19 April 2001], in Zoltán Kántor, ed., A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika [The Status Law: Documents, Essays and Articles] (Budapest, Hungary: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002).
15. Also see Judit Tóth, ed., Schengen: A magyar-magyar kapcsolatok az uniós vízumrendszer árnyékában [Schengen: Hungarian-Hungarian Relations in the Shadow of the EU Visa System] (Budapest, Hungary: Lucidus, 2000).
16. Miklós Hadnagy, director, Illyés Közalapïtvä ny (Public Foundation), personal interview, 8 May 2003.
17. For example, members of the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) parliamentary faction submitted an alternate resolution that emphasized support for ethnic Hungarian educational and cultural Institutions. See speech made by Dr, Istvän Szent-Ivänyi of SZDSZ in "A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája, 2001 április 19," 106-12.
18. At its May 1995 party congress, FIDESZ changed its name officially to FIDESZ-MPP (Hungarian Civic Party), reflecting a desire to represent some type of middle-class values."
19. See Milyen a FIDESZ polgárideál? [What Is the FIDESZ civic ideal?], interview with József Szájer, a high-ranking member of FIDESZ-MPP, Magyar Nemzet, 22 May 1995,
20. reprinted In Szájer, Jogállam, Szabadság, Rendszerváltoztatás: Beszédek, Írások, Dokumentumok, 1987-1997 [Rechtstaat, Freedom, and Regime Transition: Speeches, Writings, Documents, 1987-1997].
21. Miklós Haraszti, "The Real Viktor Orbán" OpenDemocracy, 1 May 2002, http://www.opendemocracy.net/debates/artlcle.jsp?id- 3&debateId-55&articleId-358.
22. 13 April 1991. Quoted in Mátyás Eörsi, "Egy érzés béklyójában: A státustö rvényr̃l" [In the Fetters of a Feeling: About the Status Law], Szabadság, 29 June 2001.
23. Reprinted in Kántor, A Státustörvéany: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika, 506.
24. Also see Csilla Kiss, "From Liberalism to Conservatism: The Federation of Young Democrats in Post-Communist Hungary," East European Politics and Society 16:3(2003): 739-63.
25. István Hegedus, "Nasty Discord: Party Change - The Political Shift of FIDESZ" (Translated excerpts of Ph.D. diss., Department of Sociology, Budapest University of Economic Sciences and Public Administration, Hungary, 2003), http://europa.kontexus.hu/tagok/hege_ rutpartviszalyen.html (accessed 1 December 2003).
26. András Bozóki, "Rhetoric of Action: The Language of Regime Change In Hungary," In András Bozóki, ed., Intellectuals and Politics in Central Europe (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1996), 268.
27. András Bozókl, professor of political science, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary, personal interview, 6 May 2003.
28. Kiss, "From Liberalism to Conservatism";
29. and Hegedus, Nasty Discord.
30. Hegedus. Nasty Discord.
31. András Bozóki, István Javorniczky, and István Stumpf, Magyar Politikusok Arcképcsarnoka [Portraits of Hungarian Politicians] (Budapest, Hungary: Századvég Kiadó, 1998), 37.
32. Hubert Tworzecki, Learning to Choose: Electoral Politics in East Central Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 106;
33. and Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary," Europe-Asia Studies 47:7:(1995): 1178-1203.
34. The "postmodern" label comes from Brigid Fowler, "Fuzzing Citizenship, Nationalizing Political Space: A Framework for Interpreting the Hungarian 'Status Law' as a New Form of Kin-State Policy In Central and Eastern Europe," ESRC One Europe or Several? Working Paper Series 40:2(2002).
35. Tamás Papp, office manager, Hungarian Human Rights Foundation, personal interview, 24 April 2003.
36. András Bozóki, "Bál oldal, jobb oldal, régl és új" [Left Wing, Right Wing, Old and New], in Magyar Panoptikum (Budapest, Hungary: Kávé Kiadó, 1996), 212-14. He defines the "new" right as "standing at the meeting point of liberalism and conservatism: it's conservative in social policy, but liberal in economic policy."
37. Csaba Lorincz, chief advisor to the Foreign Affairs Committee of Parliament, former deputy head of Foreign Affairs Ministry, personal interview, 22 May 2003.
38. Balázs Széchy, Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, personal interview, 28 April 2003.
39. "Hungarian Premier on His Party, Business Support, Nation Policy." Hungarian Radio, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 27 December 2000. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb. newsbank.com.
40. "Hungary: Minister Candidate Promises Stronger Policy towards Neighbours." Hungarian Radio, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 31 May 1998. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank. com.
41. "Hungary: End-of-Year Interview with Premier on All-Hungarian Policy," Duna TV satellite service, Budapest. Hungary, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 17 December 2000, Global NeivsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
42. "Outgoing Hungarian Prime Minister Sums Up Results, Says Farewell." Hungarian TV2 satellite service, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 15 May 2002. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
43. Tamás Fricz, "The Orbán Government: An Experiment in Regime Stabilization,'' In Mária Schmidt and László Gy. Tóth, eds., From Totalitarian to Democratic Hungary: Evolution and Transformation, 1990-2000 (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2000), 551.
44. "Hungary: End-of-Year Interview with Premier on All-Hungarian Policy," 36.
45. András Klein, "Néhány gondolat az Orbán-kormány külpolitikäjäröl" [Some Thoughts about the Orbän Government's Foreign Policy], Pro Minoritate 7:1(1999), http://www.hhrf.org/prominoritate/1999/99te1010.htm.
46. Speech by Zsolt Nëmeth in "A hatäron tüli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája, 2001 április 19," 94-98.
47. Zsuzsa Csergo and James M. Goldgeier, "Virtual Nationalism," Foreign Policy 125 (July/August 2001): 76-77.
48. Quoted in Judit Tóth, "Pulling the Wool over Hungarians' Eyes," Regio (2002): 129-50. The "organic" conception of the nation was also central to the populist's rhetoric on the diaspora. However, the MDF government was much slower to give up the idea of border revision.
49. Zsolt Artila Borbély, "A státustörvény mint a magyar (re)integráció eszköze" [The Status Law as a Tool of Hungarian (re)integration], Provincia 2:5(2001): 5-6;
50. also Papp interview.
51. "A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája, 2001 április 19," 94-98.
52. According to the Hungarian sociologist/demographer Attila Melegh, "Underlying this there Is certainly a nationalist discourse based on the obligation to stay at home even in times of adversity." Attila Melegh, "Globalization, Nationalism, and Petite Imperialism," Romanian Journal of Society and Politics 2:1(2003): 115-29.
53. "Outgoing Hungarian Prime Minister Sums Up Results, Says Farewell."
54. Miklós Bakk, "Egy törvény és jövõképei" [A Law and Its Future Prospects], Provincia 2:5(2001): 1.,
55. Bozóki interview; Zoltán Kántor, researcher, Teleki László Institute, personal interview, 11 February 2003; Széchy interview;
56. also see Susan Milligan, "Young, Hip and in Power in Hungary," Boston Globe, 5 June 1998. Proquest. http://proquest.umi.com/.
57. In 1994, FIDESZ had only 2.6 percent party membership and thirty-seven regional and local party offices. See James Toole, "Straddling the East-West Divide: Party Organization and Communist Legacies In East Central Europe," Europe-Asia Studies 55:1(2003): 101-18.
58. Cas Mudde writes that "virtually all anticommunist umbrella organizations that defeated the old Communist party in the founding elections defined themselves explicitly as 'movements,' not parties. This argumentation was captured in the slogan of the Czech Civic Forum (OF): 'Parties are for party members, Civic Forum is for everybody.' " Cas Mudde, "In the Name of the Peasantry, the Proletariat, and the People: Populisms in Eastern Europe," East European Politics and Societies 14:2(2000): 33-53.
59. Magdolna Balázs and Zsolt Enyedi, "Hungarian Case Studies: The Alliance of Free Democrats and the Alliance of Young Democrats," in Paul G. Lewis, ed., Party Structure and Organization in East-Central Europe (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1996), 64-65.
60. This characterization is attributed to József Torgyán, the leader of the Smallholders' Party. Bozóki interview;
61. Antal Örkény, professor of sociology and director of the Minority Studies Program, Eötvös Lorand University, personal interview, 16 April 2003.
62. Also see Toole, "Straddling the East-West Divide."
63. Fricz, "The Orbán Government," 538.
64. For example, Bishop László Tokés, one of the most prominent and vocal members of the Hungarian minority In Romania and honorary chairman of the RMDSZ, was invited to participate in the opening of FIDESZ's foreign policy club, where he stated his agreement with FIDESZ's approach to the HTM issue and criticism of the Socialists during a press conference held with Orbán and other FIDESZ leaders. "Transylvanian Bishop's Reconciliation Proposals Met Coolly in Hungary," Rompres news agency, Bucharest, Romania, in English as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, 19 February 1996. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
65. Hungarian political scientist János Simon, in "Hungary's Ruling Party 'Embedded' in Society - Expert," Népszava, Budapest, Hungary, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 16 January 2002. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
66. Fricz, "The Orbán Government," 543.
67. Zoltán Tibori Szabó, "RMDSZ: szakító próba - Mítosszá válhat a romániai magyarok egységes politikai képviselete" [RMDSZ: Trial Separation - The Romanian Hungarians' Unified Political Position May Become a Myth], Népszabadság, 14 August 2002.
68. "RMDSZ: szakítópróba - Mítosszá válhat a romániai magyarok egységes politikai képviselete" [RMDSZ: Trial Separation - The Romanian Hungarians' Unified Political Position May Become a Myth], Népszabadság, 2002, Ibid.
69. See "Hungarian-Romanian, Bucharest-UDMR Relations Deteriorating - Hungarian Dally," Népszabadság, Budapest, Hungary, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 28 September 2001. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
70. Erika Törzsök, director, Center for Comparative European Research, formerly director of the Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad (1994-1998), personal interview, 30 April 2003; Zsolt Udvarvölgyi, advisor, Secretary of Minority Affairs, Office of the Prime Minister, personal interview, 23 May 2003.
71. Széchy interview.
72. "Ethnic Hungarian Forum Takes Institutional Form." Hungarian Radio, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 21 February 1999. Global Newsbank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
73. Zsolt Németh, speaking as the political state secretary of the Foreign Ministry in 1999, spoke about the reporting function of the expert committees during a speech in front on Parliament on 23 March 1999 (Session 57, speech 277). Reprinted in Pálné Haraszti, ed., Háttérinfor mációk-Dokumentumok: A Szomszédos államokban élo magyarokról. I. Kötet- Törvényalkotási háttéranyag [Background Information-Documents: About the Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries. Vol. 1, Legislative Background Material] (Budapest, Hungary: Országgyulési Könyvt́r Képvlselotá jékoztatási Osztály [Parliamentary Library Representative's Information Center], 2001).
74. "Hungarian Forum Discusses Strategy for Ethnic Hungarians.", Duna Television, Budapest, Hungary, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 21 February 1999. Global Newsbank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
75. Bozóki interview.
76. Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation In Hungary and Poland," World Politics 51:4(1999): 484-519.
77. Also see criticism from a member of FIDESZ's own parliamentary faction. Quoted in "Hungary: Premier Responds to Criticism of Government's Performance," Hungarian Radio, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 8 July 2000. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank. com.
78. Gábor Egry, "Státustörvény és nemzetpolitikai stratëgiák" [The Status Law and National-Policy Strategies], Élet és Irodalom, 5 February 2000.
79. See Antal Örkény, ed., Menni vagy Maradni? Kedvezménytörvény és migrácios várakozások [To Go or to Stay? The Benefit Law and Migration Expectations] (Budapest, Hungary: MTA, 2003). Most studies in fact conclude that there was little incentive for laborers to apply for the work permits associated with the Status Law, as it was cheaper and easier to continue working illegally in Hungary.
80. Erika Törzsök, "Látványpolitika'' [A Politics of Appearances: Comments In the Margins of the "Status" Law], Élet es Irodalom, 4 January 2002.
81. Quoted in Zoltán Kántor, "A státustö rvény és a magyar nemzetpolitika" [The Status Law and Hungarian National Politics], Provincia 2:5(2001): 6-8.
82. See Sznbó, "RMDSZ: szakítópróba - Mítosszá válhat a remániai magyarok egységes politikai képviselete."
83. Hadnagy interview.
84. Csaba Tabajdi, "Tájékoztató a szomszédos államokban élõ magyarokról szóló törvény tervezete ròl" [Information about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries], in Kántor, A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika.
85. "Tájékoztató a szomszédos államokban élõ magyarokról szóló törvény tervezete ròl" [Information about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries], in Kántor, A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika., Ibid.
86. This is how Orbás move was described by Csaba Tabajdi, an MSZP parliamentary representative, and the Socialist's head of minority issues, Quoted in "Hungary: End-of-Year Interview with Premier on All-Hungarian policy,"
87. Hadnagy interview. I should note that many Status Law supporters - and critics - agree that the system of public foundations and scattered, but numerous, legislative provisions for HTM support was severely overtaxed and inefficient, See László Veress, "Határon túli támogatások - elmélet és gyakorlat" [Beyond the Border Subsidies - Theory and Practice], in Zoltán Kántor, ed., A Státustörvény: Elõzmények és körülmények [The Status Law: Precedents and Consequences] (Budapest, Hungary: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002);
88. Hadnagy interview; and Judit Tóth, "Diaspora Politics: Programs and Prospects," in Ilona Kiss and Catherine McGovern, eds., New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine: Legal Regulattons and Current Politics (Budapest, Hungary: Open Society Institute/Constitutional and Legal Policy Institute, 2000).
89. The economic benefits in the final draft of the Status Law were limited to subsidies for families with two-plus children attending Hungarian-language schools. The money could only be used for books and school uniforms. In the current modified version, this subsidy is available not only to ethnic Hungarians but to any family In the target countries that sends Its children to Hungarian-language schools. The revised version of the Status Law, passed in 2003 under the Socialist government, now gives subsidies to parent-school institutions instead of to individual families.
90. Csaba Tabajdi, "A kedvezménytörvény értékelése" [Evaluation of the Benefit Law], in Kántor, A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika.
91. Mátyás Eörsi, deputy leader SZDSZ Parliamentary Group, personal interview, 9 April 2003.
92. See Csurka's speech In "A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája, 2001 április 19," 117-20.
93. "Duna" television, a station created for broadcast in HTM communities, is the most obvious example of this. Created by government resolution no. 1057 dated 7 October 1992. Broadcasting began on 24 December 1992.
94. Numbers compiled from the PressDoc database, Hungarian Parliamentary Library.
95. Evans and Whitefield, "Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary."
96. "Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Hungary and the Government of Romania concerning the Law on Hungarians Living in Neighbouring Countries and Issues of Bilateral Co-operation," 22 December 2001. http://www.kum.hu/Archivum/Korabbiszovivoi/2001/12/spok1222.html (accessed 21 February 2004).
97. "Hungary's Socialists Slam Status Law Memorandum" RFE/RL NEWSLINE'6:3, part II (7 January 2002), http://www.rferl.org/newsline/2002/01/3- CEE/cee-070102.asp#archive;
98. and László Szocs, "Hungary: On the Books," Transitions On Line, 18 December to 7 January 2001, http://www.tol.cz.
99. Összefoglaló a Balázs Ferenc Intézet által a magyarországi lakosság határon túli magyarsághoz való viszonyról 2001 novemberében végzett szociológiai kutatásról [Summary of the Sociological Research Conducted in November 2001 about the Relationship of the Hungarian Population to the HTM by the Ferenc Balázs Institute], http://www.htmh.hu/bfi0111.htm (accessed 9 May 2004).
100. Poll numbers from Socio Balance survey in April 2001. Summary published by Transylvanian Forum, http://www.geocities.com/erkelyilobby/htm/statlaw.htm (accessed 9 May 2004).
101. Gallup Institute Hungary, Pártpreferenciák szerint változik as Orbán-Nastase megállapodás megítélése [Opinion of Orbán-Nastase Agreement Fluctuates according to Party Preference], 21 January 2002, Hungarian Gallup Institute Web site 2002, http://www.gallup.hu/Gallup/release/nastase020121.html (accessed 2 January 2004).
102. András Bozókl, "Hungaiy's Social Democratic Turn," East European Constitutional Review 11:3(2002): 80-86.
103. Agnes Batory, Election Briefing No. 1: Europe and the April 2002 Hungarian Parliamentary Elections (European Parties Elections and Referendums Network; Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2002), http://www.sussex.ac. uk/Units/SEI/oern/ElectionBriefings/Paper1Hungary.pdf;
104. and Brigid Fowler, Hungary's 2002 Parliamentary Elections, May 2002 (ESRC "One Europe or Several" Programme, 2002), http://www.one-europe.ac. uk/pdf/bn2-02fowler.pdf.
105. A modified version of the Status Law was narrowly passed on 23 June 2003 (196 to 173), The major modifications include the withdrawal of special work permits for ethnic Hungarians, the inclusion of anyone studying Hungarian In the subject countries within the scope of the educational language benefits, the granting of subsidies to organizations rather than individual families, and the abrogation of the two-plus child rule for benefit eligibility. See Parliament of the Hungarian Rebubalic, Act LVII of 2003 on amendments of the Act LXII of 2001, http://www.htmh.hu/lawnew.htm.
106. Quoted in "Hungary's Outgoing Premier's Rally Speech: Youth, Right-Wing Movement Cell." Hungarian TV2 satellite service, Budapest, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, 7 May 2002. Global NewsBank. http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
107. See Myra A. Waterbury, "Shaping Lives and Livelihood Abroad: The State as Ethnic Activist" (Presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, 2-5 September 2004).
108. For example, the Venice Commission report concluded that although "the mere fact that the addressees of a piece of legislation are foreign citizens does not constitute an Infringement on the principle of territorial sovereignty," the economic and administrative intervention by the Hungarian government in the HTM communities was cause for concern. Venice Commission, Report on the Preferential Treatment of National Minorities by Their Kin-State, adopted by the Venice Commission at its 48th Plenary Meeting, Venice, 19-20 October 2001, http://venice.coe.int/docs/2001/CDL-INF0001.1019-e.html.