Imagining inoculation: Smallpox, the body, and social relations of healing in the eighteenth century

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 80, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 247-268

  Gronim, Sara Stidstone ^a,b  

^a LONG ISLAND UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Body; Colonial New York; Epistemology; Healing; Inoculation; Medicine; Smallpox

Indexed keywords

EID: 33745794919     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2006.0057     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. John Ogilvie, "Diary, 1750-1759," ed. Milton W. Hamilton, Bull. Ticonderoga Mus., 1961, 10: 331-85, on pp. 377-78, 380.
2. The most detailed narrative for Boston is Arthur Bernon Tourtellot, Benjamin Franklin: The Shaping of Genius, The Boston Years (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977), pp. 233-74.
3. Among the many London accounts, see Jonathan Tucker, Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2001), pp. 16-18.
4. For a recent literary treatment of both of these, see Jennifer Lee Carrell, The Speckled Monster: A Historical Tale of Battling Smallpox (New York: Dutton, 2003).
5. On the absence of leadership: Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 49-52, 58-59.
6. On religious objections: Tucker, Scourge (n. 2), pp. 17-18;
7. Deborah Brunton, "Smallpox Inoculation and Demographic Trends in Eighteenth-Century Scotland," Med. Hist., 1992, 36: 403-29.
8. On professional jealousy: Margot Minardi, "The Boston Inoculation Controversy of 1721-22: An Incident in the History of Race," William & Mary Quart., 3rd ser., 2004, 61: 50-53.
9. On lack of access: Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), pp. 39-41;
10. Brunton, "Smallpox Inoculation" (n. 3), pp. 411-14.
11. An excellent description of the course of smallpox is Fenn, Pox Americana (n. 3), pp. 15-42.
12. For quarantines in the British colonies, see John Duffy, Epidemics in Colonial America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1953).
13. For vulnerability being highest among New England and southern recruits, see Fenn, Pox Americana (n. 3), pp. 39-40.
14. On travel to New York for inoculation, see Benjamin Gale, "Historical Memoirs, relating to the practice of inoculation for the Small pox in the British American Provinces, particularly in New England," (1764), in Royal Society of London, "Letters and Communications from Americans, 1662-1900," microfilm, reel 8, pp. 4091-4117, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pa.;
15. Joyce D. Goodfriend, "New York City in 1772: The Journal of Solomon Drowne, Junior," New York Hist., 2001, 82: 25-52.
16. See also Ann M. Becker, "Smallpox in Washington's Army: Strategic Implications of the Disease During the American Revolutionary War,"J. Milit. Hist., 2004: 68: 381-430.
17. On the distinctiveness of the geography of knowledge in the eighteenth century, see G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, "Introduction," in The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth-Century Science, ed. Rousseau and Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
18. For a compelling account of how numbers came to be accepted as representing material fact, see Mary Poovey, A History of the Modem Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
19. For a study of one complex of material practices, interpretive frames, and particular persons, see Patricia Fara, Sympathetic Attractions: Magnetic Practices, Beliefs, and Symbolism in Eighteenth-Century England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
20. On interpretive frames common among ordinary colonists, see Herbert Leventhal, In the Shadow of the Enlightenment: Occultism and Renaissance Science in Eighteenth-Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1976).
21. One study of the relationship between the social location of the knower and his authority is Steven Shapin, "'A Scholar and a Gentleman': The Problematic Identity of the Scientific Practitioner in Early Modern England," Hist. Sci., 1991, 29: 279-327.
22. On the contingency of personal epistemic authority, see Thomas F. Gieryn, Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
23. For New York in other realms, see Sara S. Gronim, Everyday Nature: Knowledge of the Natural World in Colonial New York (forthcoming, Rutgers University Press).
24. Michael Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (New York: Scribner, 1975);
25. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999);
26. Alan Tully, Forming American Politics: Ideals, Interests, and Institutions in Colonial New York and Pennsylvania (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994);
27. Cathy Maison, Merchants and Empire: Trading Colonial New York (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998) ;
28. Richard W. Pointer, Protestant Pluralism and the New York Experience: A Study of Eighteenth-Century Religious Diversity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988).
29. William Douglass to Cadwallader Colden, l May 1721, New-York Historical Society (hereafter NYHS), Collections, 1917, 50: 141.
30. News item, London, New-York Gazette, 6 May 1728, n.p.
31. News item, Boston, New-York Gazette, 27 July 1730, p. 3. (These early newspapers were unpaginated; however, where possible, I have provided page numbers for readers' convenience.)
32. News item, New-York, New-York Gazette, 26 March 1731, p. 4.
33. News item, New-York, New-York Gazette, 23 August 1731, p. 2.
34. First report of the number of burials in New York City: New-York Gazette, 27 September 1731, p. 2; these mortality figures were reported weekly through the summer of 1732, then more intermittently, with the last one on 2 January 1732/33.
35. The Rev. Cornelius Van Schie to Messrs. Van de Wall, Beels, et al., 7 May 1732, in Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York, 6 vols. (Albany: Lyon, 1901-5), 4: 2589-91.
36. Alexander to Golden, 23 March 1731/32, NYHS, Collections, 1918, 51: 59-60.
37. Yet another report claimed that half were dying on Long Island: news item, New-York Gazette, 11 January 1731/32, n.p.
38. "Of Procuring the Small-Pox by Inoculation by Dr. Timonius, from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society," New-York Gazette, 6 September 1731, p. 1.
39. Alexander to Colden, 23 December 1731, NYHS, Collections, 1918, 51: 39-42.
40. News item, New-York Gazette, 11 January 1731/32, n.p.
41. Alexander to Colden, 23 March 1731/32 (n. 17), p. 59.
42. Ibid.
43. Abigail Franks to Naphtali Franks, 4 December 1746, in The Lee Max Friedman Collection of American Jewish Colonial Correspondence: Letters of the Franks Family, 1733-1748, ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer (Waltham, Mass.: American Jewish Historical Society, 1968), pp. 132-34, on p. 134. On the 1738/39 epidemic,
44. see New-York Gazette, 30 October 1738.
45. On the Assembly meeting: "Extract from the Votes of the General Assembly," New-York Gazette, 2 April 1739, p. 4;
46. Governor Clarke to the Lords of Trade, 18 April 1739, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, 13 vols. (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1856-81), 4: 140.
47. And see the advertisement of Benjamin Taylor, New-York Evening Post, 6 April 1747, p. 3.
48. Unsigned letter, New-York Gazette, 12 December 1738, n.p. On contentions during the the 1746/47 epidemic, see
49. Alexander to Golden, 20January 1745/46, NYHS, Collections, 1919, 52: 190-91.
50. On the development of the idea of humors and the relationship to treatment, see Carole Rawcliffe, Medicine and Society in Later Medieval England (Phoenix Mill, U.K.: Sutton, 1995), pp. 29-37.
51. For the shift to preeminence of the blood in the seventeenth century, see Trudy Eden, "'Makes Like, Makes Unlike': Food, Health, and Identity in the Colonial Chesapeake" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1999), p. 79.
52. Reflections of this conception in New York are found in Robert Livingston, Jr., to Philip Livingston, 30 May 1716, Papers of Philip Livingston, microfilm, reel 6, Livingston Family Papers, Morgan Library, New York, N.Y.;
53. Alida Livingston to Robert Livingston, 12 October 1717, Alida Schuyler van Rennselaer Livingston Papers, Papers of Philip Livingston, Microfilm, Reel 6, ibid., transcripts of translated letters.
54. Advertisement for Mr. Guichard's Purgative Powders, New-York Mercury, 8 January 1759, p. 3.
55. John Milligan's advertisement for Turlington's Balsam of Life, New-York Mercury, 24 September 1759, p. 3.
56. For references to humors in general, see advertisement of Dr. Guiehard, New-York Mercury, 1 December 1760, p. 3;
57. advertisement for Tovrill's Salve, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 21 January 1762, p. 3;
58. news item, London, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 7 May 1767, p. 2;
59. advertisement of Richard Speight, New-York Journal, 29 August 1771, p. 3;
60. letter from a "Gentleman in the West Indies," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 27 April 1772, pp. 1-2.
61. For examples where "blood and humors" are paired: unsigned letter, New-York Mercury, 12 April 1756, p. 4;
62. Thomas More, Poor Thomas Improved: Being More's Country Almanack for the Year of Christian Account, 1763 (New York: Weyman, n.d.), p. 11;
63. letter of "Studens Medicinae," New-York Journal, 14 March 1771, p. 2.
64. An example of the persistence of the older language of four humors is W. Wing, Wing Improv'd: An Almanack, For the Year of Our Lord Christ, 1764 (New York: Brown, 1764), pp. 5, 13, 19.
65. Examples of blood as a central concern include directions for a drink to "rectify" the blood: Dr. George Muirson to Henry Lloyd, 14 March 1749/50, NYHS, Collections, 1926, 59: 443-44;
66. the reprint of an essay by Frederick Hoffman, M.D., New-York Mercury, 1 August 1763, pp. 1-2;
67. an advertisement of James Rivington, NewYork Journal, 14 September 1769, p. 3;
68. and a recipe for medicine: Mark Time, The New-York Almanack, For the Year of Our Lord, 1774 (New York: Holt, n.d.), p. 45.
69. William Johnson to Thomas Fitch, 13 October 1755, in Sir William Johnson, The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan and Milton W. Hamilton, 13 vols. (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921-62), 2: 186.
70. Dr. Isaac DuBois to Colden, undated (c. 1745), Cadwallader Colden Scientific Manuscripts, microfilm, New York Historical Society.
71. Thomas More, Poor Thomas Improved: Being More's Country Almanack for the Year of Christian Account, 1760 (New York: Weyman, n.d.), p. 11.
72. Golden to Dr. John Bard, 5 July 1758, NYHS, Collections, 1921, 54: 234-47, on p. 241.
73. Samuel Johnson to William Samuel Johnson, 7 February 1763, in Samuel Johnson, President of King's College: His Career and Writings, ed. Herbert Schneider and Carol Schneider, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1929), 1: 334-35.
74. For treatments of smallpox, see Hopkins, Princes and Peasants (n. 3), pp. 10-11, 32-33.
75. Colden to Bard, 5 July 1758 (n. 31), p. 245.
76. See Colden to Hugh Graham, 1716, reprinted in Sauljarcho, "The Correspondence of Cadwallader Colden and Hugh Graham on Infectious Fevers (1716-1719)," Bull. Hist. Med., 1956, 30:195-211.
77. Directions for Sydenham's method were printed in New-York Gazette, 15 March, p. 1; 22 March, p. 1; and 26 March 1730/31, p. 1.
78. A recipe for "drekapoteke" was offered to New Yorkers during the 1731-33 epidemic: "To the Publisher," New-York Gazette, 23 August 1731, p. 1;
79. recipes for other ailments that incorporated dreckapotheke are found in The Husband-Man's Guide, in Four Parts, 2nd ed. (New York: Bradford, 1712), pp. 27, 28.1 have found no evidence of anyone following this method;
80. however, in 1744 a woman complained that banning hogs from the streets of New York City would limit poor people's access to hog dung for their medicines: letter of "Deborah Sl-e," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 27 August 1744, p. 1.
81. Essay on Sydenham, New-York Gazette, 15 March 1730/31, p. 1.
82. Directions for preparing the body to withstand inoculation: "From one of the Magazines, for May 1750," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 16 March 1752, p. 1 ;
83. "Hints on preparing for inoculation by our Dr. Kilpatrick," reprint from South Carolina, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 10 March 1760, p. 1;
84. "A New Method of Inoculation," New-York Mercury, 16 February 1761, p. 2;
85. "Directions for Inoculation in the Sutton Method," in John Nathan Hutchins, Hutchins's Improved: Being an Almanack. . .For the Year of Our Lord, 1768 (New York: Gaine, n.d.), pp. 13-15.
86. For an inoculee's experience, see Reginald Fitz, "The Treatment for Inoculated Smallpox in 1764 and How It Actually Felt," Ann. Med. Hist., 3rd ser., 1942, 4: 110-13;
87. Goodfriend, "New York City in 1772" (n. 6)
88. Short pieces giving advice on techniques for the actual inoculation were also occasionally printed: letter of "N.W.," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 9 March 1751/52, p. 1;
89. "From the Gentleman's Review for March, 1751," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, ibid., 16 March 1751/52, p. 1.
90. Colden to Bard, 5 July 1758 (n. 31), p. 236.
91. Letter of John McColme, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 31 December 1759, p. 3.
92. See Benjamin Gale, "A Brief Dissertation upon Inoculation for the Small Pox as Practiced in N. America," c. 1765, ms reprinted in Royal Society of London, "Letters and Communications from Americans, 1662-1900," microfilm, American Philosophical Society, reel 8;
93. "Hints on Preparation," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 10 March 1760, p. 1.
94. Alexander to Colden, 20 January 1745/46 (n. 24), p. 191.
95. Samuel Johnson to William Samuel Johnson, 20 July 1761, in Samuel Johnson (n. 32), 1: 309.
96. John Duffy, "Smallpox and Indians in the American Colonies," Bull. Hist. Med., 1951, 25: 324-41.
97. For a summary of the current state of debate, see John F. Richards, The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 312-15, 337-40, 475, 478, 488, 496.
98. An example of a virgin soil epidemic on a Scottish island in which the mortality reached 90 percent is in Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 86.
99. Charles Wolley, "A Two Years Journal in New York and Part of Its Territories in America, 1701," in Historic Chronicles of New Amsterdam, Colonial New York, and Early Long Island, ed. Cornell Jaray (Port Washington, N.Y.: Friedman, n.d.), pp. 21-97, on p. 45.
100. Similar remarks are found in Peter Kalm, Travels in North America: The English Version of 1770, rev. and ed. Adolph B. Benson (New York: Wilson-Erikson, 1937), p. 258;
101. Nicholas Cresswell, The journal of Nicholas Cresswell, 1774-1775 (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1968),pp. 112-13.
102. Ann (MacVicar) Grant, Memoirs of an American Lady with Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as They Existed Prior to the Revolution (1808; reprint Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), p. 221.
103. Daniel K. Richter, "'Some of them . . . Would Always Have a Minister with Them': Mohawk Protestantism, 1683-1719," Amer. Indian Quart., 1992, 16: 471-84, on p. 479.
104. John Bartram, Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice, Made by Mr. John Bartram on His Travels from Pensilvania [sic] to Onondago [sic], Oswego, and the Lake Ontario, in Canada (1751; reprint New York: Arno Press, 1974), p. 43.
105. For Iroquois healing generally, see James W. Herrick, Inquois Medical Botany, ed. Dean R. Snow (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995).
106. Historians of other colonial areas have noted colonists who did ascribe Indian deaths to some innate bodily vulnerability, in what Joyce Chaplin calls a nascent "racial idiom": Joyce Chaplin, Subject Matter: Technology, the Body, and Science on the Anglo-American Frontier, 1500-1676 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), pp. 273-76.
107. See also Jorge Canizares Esguerra, "New World, New Stars: Patriotic Astrology and the Invention of Indian and Creole Bodies in Colonial Spanish America, 1600-1650," Amer. Hist. Rev., 1999, 104: 33-68.
108. "Dialogue Between Philander and Lorenzo," New-York Mercury, 11 February, p. 1,
109. 25 February, p. 1,
110. New-York Mercury, and 10 March 1760, pp. 1-2.
111. For similar assertions about epidemics as providential, see news item, Braintree, Ma., New-York Gazette, 21 February 1737/38, n.p.;
112. unsigned letter, New-York Gazette, ibid., 12 December and 19 December 1738, n.p.;
113. David Some, "The Case of Receiving Small Pox by Inoculation," reprint from Gentleman's Mag. (1750),
114. New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 9 March 1751/52, p. 1;
115. proclamation of New York City sheriff, New-York Weekly Post-boy, ibid., 2 March 1746/47, p. 3.
116. Pointer, Protestant Pluralism (n. 9);
117. Randall Balmer, A Perfect Babel of Confusion: Dutch Religion and English Culture in the Middle Colonies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989) ;
118. Patricia U. Bonomi and Peter R. Eisenstadt, "Church Adherence in the Eighteenth-Century British American Colonies," William & Mary Quart., 3rd ser., 1982, 39: 245-86;
119. John B. Frantz, "The Awakening of Religion among the German Settlers in the Middle Colonies," William & Mary Quart., 3rd Ser., ibid., 1976, 33: 266-88.
120. [Cadwallader Colden], untitled essay, which the printer opens with "The following Essay, occasioned by the late Sickness in this City," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 26 December 1743, p. 1;
121. New-York Weekly Post-boy, 2 January, pp. 1-2;
122. New-York Weekly Post-boy, and 9 January 1743/44, pp. 1-2.
123. "To the Publisher," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 30 January 1743/44, pp. 1-2.
124. Anonymous essay on inoculation, New-York Gazette, 4 December 1738, n.p.
125. News item datelined "New York," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 6 December 1756, p. 3.
126. "Dialogue Between Philander and Lorenzo," New-York Mercury, 11 February 1760, p.l.
127. For the variety of theories of smallpox that circulated in the eighteenth-century Atlantic world, see Hopkins, Princes and Peasants (n. 3), pp. 60-61.
128. For providence in British Protestantism generally, see Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999);
129. for providence and the natural world, see Larry Stewart, The Rise of Public Science: Rhetoric, Technology, and Natural Philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660-1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 31-59.1 thank Ned Landsman for the reminder that providence was known by its outcomes, and hence natural phenomena were always open to reinterpretation.
130. "A New Method of Inoculation," New-York Mercury, 14 February 1761, p. 2.
131. See also letter of Thomas Prince (Boston): New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 13 July 1752, p. 1.
132. Henry Noble MacCracken, Prologue to Independence: The Trials of James Alexander, 1715-1756 (New York: Heineman, 1964) ;
133. Alfred R. Hoermann, Cadwallader Golden: A Figure of the American Enlightenment (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002).
134. Support: Alexander to Colden, 23 December 1731 (n. 19);
135. reluctance: James Golden to Cadwallader Colden, 27 April 1732, NYHS, Collections, 1918, 51: 63-65.
136. See Alexander to Colden, 20 January 1745/46 (n. 24). Nonetheless, evidence of positions for or against inoculation by specific persons is very hard to find.
137. George Clinton, "A Proclamation," New-York Weekly Post-Bay, 15 June 1747, p. 5.
138. Carole Shammas, "Cadwallader Golden and the Role of the King's Prerogative," NYHS Quart., 1969, 53: 103-26;
139. Sara Stidstone Gronim, "Ambiguous Empire: The Knowledge of the Natural World in British Colonial New York" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1999), pp. 275-76, 296-98.
140. See Gronim, "Ambiguous Empire" (n. 64), pp. 252-69.
141. John Watts to General Monckton, 16 May 1764, NYHS, Collections, 1928, 61: 254-55.
142. Kenneth Scott, "The Slave Insurrection in 1712," NYHS Quart., 1961, 45: 51-58.
143. Unsigned letter, New-York Evening Post, 18 November 1751, p. 2.
144. New-York Evening Post, 18 November 1751, p. 2.
145. Letters by or about Schaw: New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 28 October, p. 2;
146. New-York Weekly Post-boy, 4 November, p. 1;
147. New-York Weekly Post-boy, 11 November, pp. 1-2;
148. New-York Weekly Post-boy, 18 November, p. 2;
149. New-York Weekly Post-boy, and 25 November 1751, p. 4.
150. Schaw advertised that he now was located near Elizabeth-Town, N.J.: New-York Weekly Post-boy, ibid., 3 August 1752, p. 3.
151. Newspapers: "From one of the Magazines, for May 1750," New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 16 March 1752, p. 1;
152. "From Mr. Prior's Authentik [sic] Narrative,"New-York Weekly Post-boy, ibid., 23 March 1752, p. 1;
153. news item, South Carolina, New-York Weekly Post-boy, ibid., 10 March 1760, p. 1;
154. "A New Method of Inoculation," New-York Mercury, 16 February 1761, p. 2;
155. news item, London, New-York Mercury, ibid., 31 August 1767, p. 2.
156. Pamphlets: advertisement for Adam Thomson, "A Discourse on the Preparation of the Body for the Small-Pox," New-York Mercury, 13 December 1756, p. 3;
157. advertisement for "Some Account of the Success of Inoculation for the Small Pox," New-York Weekly Post-Bay, 31 December 1759, p. 3.
158. Almanac: Hutchins, Hutchins'sImproved (n. 37), pp. 15-17.
159. The earliest self-help healing text I have found for New York is "Choice Physical Receipts for the Cure of Diseases in Men, Women, and Children" (1712), in Husband-Man 's Guide (n. 35), pp. 16-31 ;
160. such recipe knowledge was offered virtually ubiquitously in almanacs. Domestic self-help books imported from Britain began to be advertised in New York in the 1750s - e.g., advertisement for Culpepper's English Phisitian, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 27 August 1750, p. 3;
161. advertisement for Thomas Short's Mediciae Britanica, ibid., 16 September 1751, p. 4.
162. E.g., advertisement of M. Hartley, midwife, New-York Journal, 30 May 1771, p. 3;
163. advertisement of Mary Richardson, New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 3 November 1763, n. p.
164. Murfoy's advertisement, New-York Evening Post, 24 August 1747, p. 3, and fifteen times thereafter through the summer of 1748.
165. For a similar surge in such advertisement in Britain, see P. S. Brown, "Medicine Advertised in Eighteenth-Century Bath Newspapers," Med. Hist., 1976, 20:152-68.
166. For France: Colin Jones, "The Great Chain of Buying: Medical Advertisement, the Bourgeois Public Sphere, and the Origins of the French Revolution," Amer. Hist. Rev., 1996, 101: 13-40.
167. Sackett's advertisement, New-York Gazette, 23 October 1738, p. 1.
168. Samuel Johnson to William Samuel Johnson, 30 January 1757, in Samuel johnson (n. 32), 1: 270-71.
169. An anonymous essay protested the "misapprehension" that all people needed in order to get through smallpox was a good nurse: New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 27 November 1752, pp. 3-4.
170. New-York Weekly Post-Boy, 23 December 1758, p. 3.
171. New-York Journal, 13 October 1768, p. 3.
172. New-York journal, 4 April 1771, p. 3.
173. News item, New-York Journal, 18 October 1770, p. 3.
174. David Van Zwanenberg, "The Suttons and the Business of Inoculation," Med. Hist., 1978, 22: 71-82.
175. New-York Journal, 14 November 1771, p. 3.
176. Rivington's New-York Gazetteer, 14 October 1773, p. 3.
177. Advertisement of Dr. Rogers, New-York Journal, 4 April 1771, p. 3.
178. Goodfriend, "New York City in 1772" (n. 6).
179. Mary Cooper, The Diary of Mary Cooper: Life on a Long Island Farm, 1768-1773, ed. Field Home (Oyster Bay, N.Y.: Oyster Bay Historical Society, 1981), p. 26.