Climate change policies an ocean apart: EU & US climate change policies compared

Penn State Environmental Law Review

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 435-482

  Carlarne, Cinnamon ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; KYOTO PROTOCOL; POLICY ANALYSIS; POLICY STRATEGY;

EURASIA; EUROPE; EUROPEAN UNION; NORTH AMERICA; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 33745601119     PISSN: 15463427     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (290)

1. Greg Kahn, Between Empire and Community: The United States and Multilateralism 2001-2003: A Mid-Term Assessment: Environment: The Fate of the Kyoto Protocol Under the Bush Administration, 21 Berkeley J. Int'l Law 548 (2003);
2. Steven Sorrell, Who Owns the Carbon? Interactions Between the EU Emissions Trading Scheme and the UK Renewables Obligation and Energy Efficiency Commitment, 14 Energy & Env't 677 (2003).
3. See, e.g., id.
4. See, e.g., Elizabeth Demarco, Robert Routliffe & Heather Landymore, Canadian Challenges in Implementing the Kyoto Protocol: A Cause for Harmonization, 42 Alberta L. Rev. 209 (2004).
5. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 11, 1997, 37 I.L.M. 32 (1998), available at http:// unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf [hereinafter Kyoto Protocol].
6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, May 9, 1992, 31 I.L.M. 849 (entered into force Mar. 21, 1994), available at http:// www.unfccc.de/resource/conv/index.html [hereinafter UNFCCC]. There were 181 parties as of Dec. 10, 1999.
7. See Duncan Brack et al., International Trade and Climate Change Policies (2000).
8. See UNFCCC, supra note 5, at Preamble.
9. See Kyoto Protocol, supra note 4, arts. 4.1, 10, 12.
10. See Annie Petsonk, The Kyoto Protocol and the WTO: Integrating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Allowances Trading into the Global Marketplace, 10 Duke Envt'l L. & Pol'y F. 185 (1999).
11. See Nuno S. Lacasta, Suraje Dessai & Eva Powroslo, Rio's Decade: Reassessing the 1992 Earth Summit: Reassessing the 1992 Climate Change Agreement: Consensus Among Many Voices: Articulating the European Union's Position on Climate Change, 32 Golden Gate U. L. Rev. 351, 352 (2002);
12. see generally Climate Change and European Leadership (Joyeta Gupa & Michael Grubb eds., 2000).
13. See Commission of the European Community, European Climate Change Programme, Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, at i-iv, COM (Apr. 2003), available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/ pdf/second_eccp_report.pdf [hereinafter Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary].
14. See, e.g., Robert McKinstry Jr., Local Solutions for Global Problems: The Debate Over the Causes and Effects of Climate Change and Emerging Mitigation Strategies for States, Localities and Private Parties, 12 Penn St. Envtl. L. Rev. 1 (2004);
15. Glen Sussman, The USA and Global Environmental Policy: Domestic Constraints on Effective Leadership, 25 Int'l Pol. Sci. Rev. 4, 349-369 (2004).
16. See, e.g., Kahn, supra note 1;
17. The White House, Global Climate Change Policy Book (2002), available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/climatechange.html [hereinafter Global Climate Change Policy Book]. However, U.S. states and localities are following the lead of the EU and the UK and are pushing for more progressive, obligatory climate change policies. This will be discussed in more detail in Section II(D)(i).
18. Council Decision 2002/358, 2002 O.J. (L 130) (EC), available at http:// europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/128060.htm (concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments thereunder).
19. See also UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol Status of Ratification, http:// unfccc.int/files/essential_background/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/ kpstats.pdf (last visited Apr. 15, 2006). The Kyoto Protocol has 156 ratifications, accessions, and acceptances as of September 19, 2005.
20. See, e.g., Patrick Parenteau, Anything Industry Wants: Environmental Policy Under Bush II, 14 Duke Envtl. L. & Pol'y F. 363 (2004).
21. See, e.g., John C. Dernbach, Symposium: Facing Climate Change: Opportunities and Tools for States, 14 Widener L. J. 1 (2004).
22. See Barry G. Rabe, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Greenhouse & Statehouse: The Evolving State Government Role in Climate Change 36-39 (2002), available at http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/ states%5Fgreenhouse%2Epdf.
23. See Parenteau, supra note 15, at 366.
24. Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13.
25. Id. at 2.
26. UNFCCC, supra note 5.
27. See Parenteau, supra note 15, at 368.
28. Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 2.
29. Id.
30. See Parenteau, supra note 15, at 368.
31. Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 6.
32. See, e.g., id. at 3, 15.
33. Id.
34. Id. at 3, 4, 21.
35. Id. at 8.
36. Id.
37. Id. at 15.
38. Id. at 3.
39. Id. at 3, 8.
40. United Kingdom Utilities Act, 2000 c. 27 (Eng.), available at http:// www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000027.htm.
41. Energy Policy Act of 2005, 42 U.S.C. §§ 15801-16524 (2005).
42. See Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 3, 11.
43. Id.
44. See id.
45. See id. at 3, 8.
46. "On January 9, 2002, Energy Secretary Abraham, with the heads of General Motors, Ford Motor Co. and the Chrysler arm of DaimlerChrysler, announced a new partnership, FreedomCAR (Cooperative Automotive Research), to promote the development of hydrogen as the primary fuel for cars and trucks. The "FreedomCAR" program embraces the long-term strategic goal of developing a new breakthrough technology - the hydrogen-powered fuel cell - with a vision of ultimately eliminating our reliance on foreign oil." Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 12.
47. Id. at 8-20.
48. See Robert R. Nordhaus & Kyle W. Danish, Assessing the Options for Designing a Mandatory U.S. Greenhouse Gas Reduction Program, 32 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. 97, 106 (2005).
49. See Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 3-9, 14-17.
50. The United States Environmental Protection defines carbon sequestration as "[t]he uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned." EPA Global Warming Site, Glossary of Climate Change Terms, http://www.epa.gov/opeoeel/globalwarming/glossary.html (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
51. For a discussion of carbon sequestration, see, e.g., Allen Keiser, Carbon Sequestration Options Under the Clean Development Mechanism to Address Land Degradation, 92 World Soil Res. Rep. 7, 7-11 (2000).
52. See Parenteau, supra note 15, at 365-366.
53. Id.
54. See generally Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13.
55. Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002, 7 U.S.C. § 7901 (2002);
56. Conservation Reserve Program, 16 U.S.C. § 3843 (2002).
57. Id. at 16 U.S.C. § 3839aa-9.
58. Id. at 16 U.S.C. § 3837.
59. See, e.g., International Climate Change Taskforce, Meeting the Climate Challenge: Recommendation of the International Climate Change Taskforce 10-11 (2005), available at http://www.tai.org.au/Publications_Files/ Papers&Sub_Files/Meeting%20the%20Climate%20Challenge%20FV.pdf.
60. See Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 4-5, 15-19.
61. See id.
62. 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401-7671(q) (2000).
63. 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1376 (2000).
64. 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-44 (2000).
65. Dernbach, supra note 16 at 173.
66. See generally, McKinstry, supra note 12.
67. See Progressive Policy Institute, State and Local Governments and Climate Change (2003), http://www.ppionline.org/ ppi.̂cfm?knlgAreaID=116&subsecID=900039&contentID=2 51285 [hereinafter State and Local Governments and Climate Change].
68. Id.
69. See Rabe, supra note 17.
70. Id. at 16-18.
71. Id.;
72. see also State and Local Governments and Climate Change, supra note 61.
73. See, e.g., Rabe, supra note 17.
74. Id.
75. See generally Rachel L. Chanin, California's Authority to Regulate Mobile Source Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 58 N.Y.U. Ann. Surv. Am. L. 699 (2003).
76. Id. at 699.
77. Cal. Legis. Serv. Ch. 200, 3(a) (West 2002).
78. A.B. 1058, 2(a), 2001-02 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Cal. 2001) (as amended May 31, 2001), WL 2001 CA A.B. 1059 (NS).
79. See Chanin, supra note 68, at 705-706.
80. See generally Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13;
81. see also Sierra Club, Waiting to Inhale: Bush Administration Policies Mean More Dirty Air (2004).
82. See generally Rabe, supra note 17.
83. See Chanin, supra note 68, at 703
84. (citing Gary Polakovic, Assembly Bill Targets Global Warming Trend, L.A. Times, Jan. 26, 2002, at B1
85. (quoting Dan Sperling, director of the Institute for Transportation Studies at the University of California, Davis)).
86. Id.
87. See Deborah Keeth, The California Climate Law: A State's Cutting-Edge Efforts to Achieve Clean Air, 30 Ecology L.Q. 715, 719 (2003).
88. The Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers is a Washington-based trade group represents nine automakers, including General Motors Corp., Ford Motor Co., DaimlerChrysler AG, Toyota Motor Co., BMW AG and Volkswagen AG.
89. See Environmental Defense, Carmakers Sue California Over Groundbreaking Clean Cars Law (2005), http://www.environmentaldefense.org/ article.cfm?contentid=4192;
90. Jeff Plungis, Auto Industry Sues over California Air Plan, Am. Int'l Automobile Dealers, Dec. 08, 2005, http://www.aiadalists.org/.
91. See The New England Governors & The Eastern Canadian Premiers (2001), http://www.negc.org/02En003.html.
92. Id. at Preamble.
93. Id.
94. Id.
95. The New England Governors & The Eastern Canadian Premiers, Res. 277: Res. Concerning Climate Change (2001), http://www.negc.org/02En003.html.
96. Id.
97. Id.
98. U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement, http://www.seattle.gov/mayor/ climate/default.htm#what (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
99. McKinstry, supra note 12, at 12.
100. See International council for local environmental initiatives- local governments for sustainability (ICLEI), Cities for Climate Protection (CCP), http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=800 (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
101. Id.
102. Id.
103. Judith Samans-Dunn, The City of Philadelphia - The Government and Community Work Together to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 12 Penn St. Envtl. L. Rev. 207, 208 (2004).
104. Id. at 209.
105. Id. at 211.
106. Id. at 209.
107. Id. at 208.
108. Id.
109. Id.
110. See State and Local Governments and Climate Changes, supra note 61.
111. City of Portland Office of Sustainable Development, Global Warming Update (2001), http://www.sustainableportland.org/ engery_global_warming_2001_emissions.pdf [hereinafter Global Warming Update].
112. Id.
113. Id.
114. McKinstry, supra note 12, at 57;
115. Global Warming Update, Supra note 100.
116. Organic Consumers Association, Global Warming Lawsuit Against U.S. Agencies Passes Court Test, http://www.organicconsumers.org/Politics/ globalwarm082505.cfm (last visited Apr. 15, 2006);
117. In Landmark Decision Against Bush Administration, Federal Court Recognizes Harm Caused by Global Warming: Lawsuit by Environmental Groups and Cities Goes Forward, ClimateLawsuit.Org, Aug. 24, 2005, http:/ /www.climatelawsuit.org/.
118. See id.
119. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4347 (2002).
120. See Global Warming Lawsuit Against U.S. Agencies Passes Court Test, supra note 104;
121. In Landmark Decision Against Bush Administration, Federal Court Recognizes Harm Caused by Global Warming: Lawsuit by Environmental Groups and Cities Goes Forward, supra note 104.
122. See id.
123. Defendants' Motion for Summary Judgment and Memorandum in Support, Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Watson, Civ. No. 024106, (N.D. Cal. Feb. 11, 2005).
124. See Global Warming Lawsuit Against U.S. Agencies Passes Court Test, supra note 104;
125. In Landmark Decision Against Bush Administration, Federal Court Recognizes Harm Caused by Global Warming: Lawsuit by Environmental Groups and Cities Goes Forward, supra note 104.
126. See id.
127. See Press Release, Climate Justice Program, U.S. Utilities Sued Over Climate Change (July 21, 2004), http://www.climatelaw.org/media/ eight.states.sue;
128. Bob Egelko, States to Sue EPA Over Refusal to Restrict Tailpipe Greenhouse Gases: Bush Expressed Doubts on Link Between Emissions, Global Warming, San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 4, 2003, at A-5.
129. See id.
130. See id.
131. See id.
132. See Ctr. for Int'l Envt'l Law, Inuit File Petition with Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Claiming Global Warming Caused by United States Is Destroying Their Culture and Livelihoods (2005), http:// www.ciel.org/Climate/ICC_Petition_7Dec05.html.
133. See id.
134. Yuill Herbert, President Bush, See You in Court Judging the cost of climate change, The Dominion, Dominion, http://www.tuvaluislands.com/ news/archives/2004/2004-08-25.htm (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
135. US Faces Legal Battles as Climate Bogeyman, PlanetArk.Org, Aug. 30, 2002, http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/17512/newsDate/ 30-Aug-2002/story.htm (last visited Apr. 15, 2006);
136. Tuvalu and Greenpeace Sue US for Global Warming; Russia Ratifies: Kyoto Confirmed!; Colombia Invokes US-Style PATRIOT Act as Washington Pours in More Money, The-Edge.Org, Sept. 20, 2002, http://www.earthisland.org/ project/newsPage2.cfm?newsID=237&pageID=177&subSiteID=44 (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
137. See Mark Townsend & Paul Harris, Now Pentagon Tells Bush: Climate Change Will Destroy Us, The Observer, Feb. 22, 2004, available at http:// observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1153513,00.html.
138. Id.
139. Committee on the Science of Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Students, National Research Council, Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions (2001), available at http:/books.nap.edu/books/ 0309075742/html/.
140. Union of Concerned Scientists, NAS Report: Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions, http://www.ucsusa.org/ssi/climate_change/ nas-report-climate-change-science.html (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
141. Charles J. Hanley, Clinton says Bush is 'Flat-Wrong' on Climate Change Kyoto, ABC News Int'l, Dec. 9, 2005, http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/ wireStory?id=1390510.
142. Council Decision 2002/358, 2002 O.J. (L 130) (EC, available at http:// europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/128060.htm (concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments thereunder).
143. See also UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol Status of Ratification, http:// unfccc.int/files/essential_background/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/ kpstats.pdf. The Kyoto Protocol has 156 ratifications, accessions, and acceptances as of September 19, 2005.
144. Council Decision 94/69, 1993 O.J. (L 033) (EC) (concerning the conclusion of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).
145. Council Decision 2002/358, 2002 O.J. (L 130) (EC), available at http:// europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/128060.htm (concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments thereunder).
146. Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
147. See Council Decision 2002/358, 2002 O.J. (L 130) (EC), available at http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/128060.htm (concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments thereunder).
148. See Joseph A. Kruger & William A. Pizer, Greenhouse gas trading in Europe: the New Grand Policy Experiment, 46 Env't 8 (2004).
149. Dept. of the Env't, Transport & the Regions (DETR), Climate Change the UK Programme: Summary (2003) [hereinafter DETR].
150. Press Release, Commission of the European Community, U.N. Conference on Climate Change: EU Set to Keep Momentum in the Global Fight Against Climate Change (Dec. 3, 2004).
151. Council Decision 2002/358, 2002 O.J. (L 130) (EC), available at http:// europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/128060.htm (concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments thereunder).
152. See DETR, supra note 131.
153. See Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
154. EUROPA, European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme (2005), http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/climat/emission.htm [hereinafter EU ETS].
155. See Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
156. See id.
157. Commission of the European Community, Climate Change Homepage, European Climate Change Programme (ECCP), http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ climat/home_en.htm (last visited Apr. 15, 2006) [hereinafter Climate Change Homepage].
158. See Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
159. See id.
160. See id.
161. See id.
162. Commission of the European Community, Brochure: EU Emissions Trading: An Open Scheme Promoting Global Innovation to Combat Climate Change (2004) [hereinafter Brochure].
163. Second ECCP Progress Report, supra note 11;
164. see also U. Steiner Brandt & G. Tinggaard Svendsen, Rent-Seeking and Grandfathering: the Case of GHG Trade in the EU, 15 Energy & Env. 69 (2004).
165. See Climate Change Homepage, supra note 139.
166. See id.
167. See id.
168. See Commission Green Paper on Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading within the European Union, COM (2000), available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/ environment/docum/0087_en.htm;
169. Brochure, supra note 144.
170. Climate Change Homepage, supra note 139.
171. Id.
172. See id.
173. See id.
174. Commission White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan, Energy for the Future: Renewable Sources of Energy, COM (1997) 599 final (Nov. 26, 1997), available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/library/ 599fi_en.pdf.
175. EUROPA, New and Renewable Energies: Energy for the Future: Renewable Sources of Energy, http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/res/index_en.htm (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
176. Id.
177. Commission Decision of 29/01 2004 O.J. (C 2004) 130 final; Commission Directive 2004/101 2004 O.J.; Commission Directive 2003/87/EC 2003 O.J.
178. EU ETS, supra note 136.
179. See Kyoto Protocol, supra note 4, at arts. 3, 6, 12, 16.
180. EU ETS, supra note 136.
181. See id.
182. See Brochure, supra note 145;
183. see also Kruger & Pizer, supra note 130.
184. See Commission Regulation 2216/2004, 2004 O.J. supra note 159;
185. see also Commission Directive 2003/87/EC, supra note 159, arts. 9-11 & Annex III.
186. See Brochure, supra note 145, at 11.
187. See Commission Directive 2003/87/EC, supra note 159, Annex II.
188. Press Release, Commission of the European Community, Emissions Trading: Commission Approves Last Allocation Plan Ending NAP Marathon, June 20, 2005, available at http://europa.eu.int/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/762&format=HTML &aged=0&Ianguage=EN&guiLanguage=en.
189. Id.
190. Id.
191. Id.
192. EU ETS, supra note 136.
193. See Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
194. See, e.g., id.
195. Id. at 4.
196. Id.
197. Id. at 2.
198. Id. at 2-3.
199. See generally id.
200. See DETR, supra note 131.
201. Id. at 4.
202. Id.
203. See generally Dept. for Env't Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA), Climate Change Impacts & Adaptations Research Programme (CC03) Project Summaries Report (1987-2003). (2003).
204. DETR, supra note 131.
205. See id.
206. Id.
207. Id. at 6-7.
208. See generally id.
209. Benjamin J. Richardson & Kiri L. Chanwai, The UK's Climate Change Levy: Is It Working?, 15 J. of Envt'l L. 39 (2003).
210. DETR, supra note 131, at 6.
211. Id.
212. Id.
213. Information on The Carbon Trust is can be found at http:// www.thecarbontrust.co.uk/carbontrust/.
214. DETR, supra note 131, at 6.
215. Id.
216. Id.
217. Id.
218. See United Kingdom Utilities Act, 2000 c 27 (Eng.), available at http:// www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000027.htm.
219. Id.
220. See Dept. for Env't, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA), Sustainable Energy: Combined Heat and Power (2005), http://www.defra.gov.uk/ environment/energy/chp/.
221. See id.
222. DETR, supra note 131, at 6.
223. Id. at 10-11.
224. Id.
225. Id.
226. Id. at 7.
227. Id.
228. Id. The Energy Efficiency Commitment program is the successor to Energy Efficiency Standards of Performance (EESOP).
229. Id.
230. Id. at 11.
231. DETR, supra note 131, at 8.
232. Id.
233. Id. at 8.
234. DETR, supra note 131, at 7.
235. Information on these regulations can be found on the homepage for the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, "Building Regulations" available at http://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_buildreg/ documents/sectionhomepage/odpm_buildreg_page.hcsp (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
236. Id.
237. DETR, supra note 131, at 7.
238. See, e.g., National Farmers Union, UK Agriculture & Climate Change, available at http://www.nfu.org.uk/stellentdev/groups/public/documents/ policypositions/ukagricultureandcli_ia432192b6.pdf (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
239. DETR, supra note 131, at 7.
240. Id.
241. DETR, supra note 131, at 4.
242. Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 2.
243. The UK's commitment under Kyoto is to reduce its GHG emissions by 12.5% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012 but the UK has established a national objective of reducing its emissions to 20% below 1990 levels by 2010.
244. Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 5.
245. See, e.g., U.S. EPA, US Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (2005).
246. See generally Robert Lempert, IAI Transatlantic Programme, Finding Transatlantic Common Ground on Climate Change, 36 The Int'l Spectator 2 (April-June 2001), available at http://www.iai.it/pdf/articles/ lempert.pdf.
247. See, e.g., Press Release, Commission of the European Community, Europeans Want Policy Makers to Consider the Environment as Important as Economic and Social Policies (Apr. 29, 2005), available at http:// europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/ 513&format=HTML&aged=0&Ianguage=en&guiLanguage=en.
248. See id.
249. Sustainability Institute, Supporting Effective Participation in the Climate Change Debate: The Role of System Dynamics Simulation Modeling 1-3 (2002).
250. Id.
251. See id.;
252. see also Richard Morin, Beliefs About Climate Change Hold Steady, Wash. Post, Oct. 2, 2005, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/ content/article/2005/10/01/AR2005100101191.html;
253. Environment Polling Reports, Polling Report.Com, http:// www.pollingreport.com/enviro.htm (last visited Apr. 15, 2005)
254. Id. (citing Center on Policy Attitudes poll from November 2000).
255. For example, the Natural Resources Defense Council and Environmental Defense are to environmental organizations with domestic and international members that aggressively campaign for and pressure the US government to be a more active and cooperative player on international environmental issues.
256. See, e.g., Emma Marris, Candidates Keep Quiet on Climate Change, NEWSΝATURE.COM, Sept. 21, 2004, http://www.nature.com/news/2004/ 040913/pf/040913-13_pf.html;
257. Alister Doyle, Kerry Winds Fans Abroad with Global Warming Plan, Reuters, Oct. 27, 2004, http://www.climatecrisiscoalition.org/ newsinternational2.html.
258. See, e.g., Found. for the Econ. of Sustainability, UK European Parliament Candidates' Positions On Climate Change (2004), http:// www.feasta.org/events/climatecampaign/EPcandidatesUK.htm;
259. Found. for the Econ. of Sustainability, Climate Change and the European Elections (2004), http://www.feasta.org/events/climatecampaign/ climatecampaignletter.pdf;
260. European Environmental Bureau, EEB Briefings for the EU Election Campaign (2004), http://www.eeb.org/activities/european_constitution/ EEB-EP-Briefing-Climate-April04.pdf.
261. U.N. Conference on Env. & Dev., Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/5/Rev.1, 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992) [hereinafter Rio Declaration].
262. See, e.g., U.S. Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1376 (2000);
263. U.S. Endangered Species Act, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-44 (2000).
264. See also Communication from the Commission on the Precautionary Principle, Brussels, Feb. 2, 2000 (2000), available at http:// europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/health_consumer/library/pub/pub07_en.pdf [hereinafter Communication from the Commission on the Precautionary Principle].
265. Appellate Body Report, European Communities - Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products, WT/DS26/AB/R, at 41-42 (Jan. 16, 1998) (adopted Feb. 13, 1998) [hereinafter EC-Beef Hormones].
266. See, e.g., id;
267. Anais Kedgley Laidlaw, Is it Better to be Safe than Sorry? The Cartagena Protocol Versus the World Trade Organisation 36 Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev. 427 (2005).
268. See, e.g., Communication from the Commission on the Precautionary Principle, supra note 235.
269. See, e.g., Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 1.
270. Howard F. Chang, Risk Regulation, Endogenous Public Concerns, and the Hormones Dispute: Nothing to Fear but Fear Itself?, 77 S. Cal. L. Rev. 743 (2004);
271. Jonathan B. Wiener, Whose Precaution after all? A Comment on the Comparison and Evolution of Risk Regulatory Systems, 13 Duke J. Comp. & Intl' L. 207 (2003);
272. Jonathan B. Wiener & Michael D. Rogers, Comparing Precaution in the United States and Europe, 5 J. Risk Res. 317, 318 (2002);
273. Joanne Scott, European Regulation of GMOs and the WTO, 9 Colum. J. Eur. L. 213, 215 (2003).
274. Letter from President George Bush, to Senators Hagel, Helms, Craig, and Roberts (Mar. 13, 2001), available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/ releases/2001/03/20010314.html.
275. Press Release, U.S. Dept. of State, President Bush and the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development (July 27, 2005), available at http:// www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/50314.htm.
276. For a good discussion of interest group politics in the United States, see Robert E. McCormick & Robert D. Tollison, Politicians, Legislation, and the Economy (1981)
277. See Richard B. Stewart, Pyramids of Sacrifice? Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy, 86 Yale L.J. 1196, 1213-14 (1977).
278. For a discussion of interest groups in the context of environmental policy, see Joshua D. Sarnoff, The Continuing Imperative (but Only from a National Perspective) for Federal Environmental Protection, 7 Duke Envtl. L. & Pol'y F. 225, 285-86 (1997).
279. For a discussion of the impact of interest groups on climate change politics in the United States, see Kristen H. Engel & Scott R. Saleska, Subglobal Regulation of the Global Commons: The Case of Climate Change, 32 Ecology L.Q. 183, 214 (2005);
280. Daniel C. Esty, Toward Optimal Environmental Governance, 74 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1495, 1547-48, 1555 (1999);
281. Jonathan Baert Wiener, On the Political Economy of Global Environmental Regulation, 87 GEO. L.J. 749, 761 (1999).
282. Now Pentagon Tells Bush: Climate Change Will Destroy Us, supra note 120 (quoting Jeremy Symons, a former whistleblower at the Environmental Protection Agency).
283. For example, even in the Global Climate Change Policy Book, supra note 13, at 1, the White House emphasizes that "scientific uncertainties remain."
284. Luntz Memorandum on the Environment, http://www.ewg.org/briefings/ luntzmemo/pdf/LuntzResearch_enviromnent.pdf (last visited Apr. 15, 2006).
285. Ret. Hon Charles Kennedy MP, The Politics of Climate Change in Britain (2005), http://www.libdems.org.uk/ parliament-the-politics-of-climate-change.html.
286. Lord Whitty, Climate Change Policy: The View from Europe, Brookings Briefing (Apr. 18, 2005), available at http://www.brookings.edu/comm/ events/20050418.htm.
287. Letter from President George Bush, to Senators Hagell, Helms, Craig, and Roberts, supra note 241.
288. See, e.g., Brochure, supra note 144;
289. Second ECCP Progress Report: Executive Summary, supra note 11.
290. Washington Furious over Martin's Climate Change Comments, CBS News, Dec. 9, 2005, http://www.cbc.ca/story/canadavotes2006/national/2005/12/09/ katrina-global-warming-bush-martin.html.