Just war doctrine and the invasion of Iraq

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 51, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 545-563

  Enemark, C ^a   Michaelsen, C ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33745314035     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: 14678497     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8497.2005.00393.x     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. nd ed. (New York, 1992);
2. Chris Brown, International Relations Theory: New Normative Approaches (New York, 1992).
3. The United States, Britain and Australia [hereinafter "the Coalition"].
4. See Paul Christopher, The Ethics of War and Peace (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994), pp. 87-96.
5. th ed. (London, 1998), p. 895.
6. For a discussion of the notion of self-defence, anticipatory self-defence and the pre-emptive use of force see Miriam Sapiro, "Iraq: The Shifting Sands of Preemptive Self-Defense", American Journal of International Law [hereinafter AJIL], Vol. 97 (2003), pp. 599-607.
7. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, September 2002, p. 15, 〈http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf〉.
8. George W. Bush, Address to the Nation on War with Iraq, 17 March 2003; 〈http://www.whitehouse.gov/nem/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html〉.
9. John Howard, Address to the Nation, 20 March 2003; 〈http://www.pm. gov.au/news/speeches/speech79.html〉.
10. Tim Trevan, "Exploiting Intelligence in International Organisations", in Raymond A. Zilinskas, ed., Biological Warfare: Modern Offense and Defense (London, 2000), pp. 209, 211.
11. Joseph Cirincione et al., W.M.D. in Iraq: Evidence and Implications (Washington, DC, 2004), [hereinafter Carnegie Report], p. 52.
12. George W. Bush, Remarks by the President on Iraq, 7 October 2002; 〈http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html〉.
13. Carnegie Report, p. 53.
14. See Christian Enemark, Biological Weapons: An Overview of Threats and Responses, Working Paper 379 (Canberra, 2003), pp. 3-4.
15. Carnegie Report, p. 47.
16. Carnegie Report, Ibid., pp. 6, 47-48;
17. see also Rolf Ekeus, "Iraq's Real Weapons Threat", Washington Post, 29 June 2003.
18. th Quarterly Report to the United Nations Security Council, 30 May 2003, pp. 5-6; 〈http://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/ S-2003-580.pdf〉.
19. Richard W. Stevenson, "Remember 'Weapons of Mass Destruction'? For Bush they are a Nonissue", New York Times, 18 December 2003.
20. Colin Powell, Testimony before the Senate Budget Committee, 11 February 2003; 〈http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2003/17620.htm〉.
21. Carnegie Report, p. 7;
22. see also Spence Ackerman, "The Weakest Link", Washington Monthly, (Nov 2003), pp. 14-26.
23. House of Commons Intelligence and Security Committee, Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction - Intelligence and Assessments, September 2003, p. 34; 〈http://www.cabinet-office.gov.uk/reports/isc/pdf/iwmdia.pdf〉.
24. Carnegie Report, p. 49.
25. Bush, Address to the Nation on War with Iraq, 17 March 2003.
26. See e.g. Tony Blair, PM Statement on Iraq, 25 February 2003, 〈http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page3088.asp〉;
27. John Howard, Address to the Nation, 20 March 2003, 〈http://www.pm. gov.au/news/speeches/speech79.html〉.
28. John Howard, Address to the National Press Club, 14 March 2003, 〈http://www.pm.gav.au/news/speeches/speech74.html〉.
29. Tony Blair, PM Statement Opening Iraq Debate, 18 March 2003, 〈http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page3294.asp〉.
30. Simon Chesterman, Just War or Just Peace? Humanitarian Intervention and International Law (Oxford, 2001), pp. 2-29.
31. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), The Responsibility to Protect (Ottawa: 2001), p. 32.
32. Bush, Address to the Nation on War with Iraq, 17 March 2003.
33. th Quarterly Report of UNMOVIC to the UN Security Council, 1 March 2003, 〈http://www.un.org/Depts/ unmovic/SC7asdelivered.htm〉.
34. Attorney-General Lord Goldsmith (UK), Written Answer to Parliament on the Use of Force in Iraq, 17 March 2003, 〈http://www.parliament.the- stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/pdvn/lds03/text/30317w01.htm〉.
35. However, in April 2005 the UK government released a thirteen-page memorandum of advice, dated 7 March 2003 and marked "Secret", from Lord Goldsmith to Mr Blair on the legality of military action in Iraq. The Attorney-General had advised that "the safest legal course would be to secure the adoption of a further resolution to authorise the use of force": Lord Goldsmith, Advice to the Prime Minister on Iraq and UN Security Council Resolution 1441, 7 March 2003, 〈http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/ 28_04_05_attorney_general.pdf〉.
36. Ibid. Lord Goldsmith, Advice to the Prime Minister on Iraq and UN Security Council Resolution 1441, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/ pdfs/28_04_05_attorney_general.pdf.
37. See also Bill Campell QC and Chris Moraitis, Memorandum of Advice to the Commonwealth Government the Use of Force against Iraq (tabled by Prime Minister Howard in the Australian Parliament on 18 March 2003),
38. reprinted in Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol. 4, 1 (2003), pp. 178-82.
39. See e.g. "War would be illegal" (Letter to PM Blair sent by sixteen eminent international lawyers), Guardian, 7 March 2003;
40. Thomas M. Franck, "What Happens Now? The United Nations After Iraq", AJIL, Vol. 97 (2003), p. 614;
41. George Williams and Devika Hovell, "Advice to the Hon Simon Crean MP on the Use of Force Against Iraq", Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol. 4, 1 (2003), pp. 183-9.
42. Quoted in Rabinder Singh QC and Charlotte Kilroy (Matrix Chambers, London), Opinion 15 November 2002, 〈http://www.matrixlaw.co.uk/headline/ CND%20draft%20res%2015%20Nov%202002.pdf〉.
43. See RR Baxter, "Armistices and Other Forms of Suspension of Hostilities", Recueil des Cours, Vol. 149 (1976), pp. 372-82.
44. In 1956 this legal interpretation was also confirmed by UN Secretary-General Hammarskjöld in the context of ceasefire obligations in the Middle East, see Sydney D. Bailey, How Wars End: The United Nations and the Termination of Armed Conflict 1946-1964, Vol. I (Oxford, 1982), p. 293.
45. nd ed, (Philadelphia, 1996), pp. 200-02.
46. UN Doc. S/3079 (7 August 1953), quoted in Leland M. Goodrich, Korea: A Study of U.S. Policy in the United Nations (Westport, CT, 1956), p. 198.
47. Unified Command Report on the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission in Korea, UN Doc. A/3167 (1956);
48. UN Department of Public Information, United Nations Yearbook (New York, 1956), pp. 128-30.
49. See e.g. Hilary Charlesworth and Andrew Byrnes, "No, this war is illegal", Age, 19 March 2003.
50. Marc Weller, ed., Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and their Aftermath, Cambridge International Documents Series, Vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 737-8.
51. Quoted in Jules Lobel and Michael Ratner, "Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations of the Use of Force, Cease-Fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime", AJIL, Vol. 93 (1999), p. 140.
52. Most challenges to the Council's authority to sanction the use of force are rooted in idealistic theories about "majoritarian" decision-making power and democratisation of international law. See e.g. Georg Nolte, "The Limits of the Security Councils Powers and Its Functions in the International Legal System: Some Reflections", in Michael Byers, ed, The Role of Law in International Politics (Oxford, 2000).
53. See e.g. Ruth Wedgwood, "NATO's Campaign in Yugoslavia", AJIL, Vol. 93 (1999), p. 833.
54. ICISS, The Responsibility to Protect, p. 54.
55. In the case of Liberia, see UNSC resolution 788 (1992);
56. in the case of Sierra Leone, see UNSC resolution 1260 (1999).
57. See e.g. Craig Scott, "Interpreting Intervention", Canadian Yearbook of International Law (2001), pp. 354-55;
58. "Secretary-General Presents His Annual Report to the General Assembly", UN Press Release SG/SM/7136,GA/9596 (29 September 1999).
59. See e.g. Nicholas J. Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society, (Oxford, 2000);
60. C.A.J. Coady, The Ethics of Armed Humanitarian Intervention (Washington D.C., 2002).
61. See e.g. Mohammed Ayoob, "Humanitarian Intervention and International Society", Global Governance, Vol. 7,3 (2001), pp. 225-31;
62. Nigel D. White, "The Legality of Bombing in the Name of Humanity", Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Vol. 5, 1 (2000), p. 38.
63. Carsten Stahn, "Future Implication of the Iraq Conflict", AJIL, Vol. 97 (2003), p. 815.
64. Nicholas J. Wheeler, "Review Article: Humanitarian Intervention after Kosovo: Emergent Norm, Moral Duty or the Coming Anarchy?", International Affairs, Vol. 77 (2001), pp. 120-23.
65. Jimmy Carter, State of the Union Address 1980, 21 January 1980, 〈http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/speeches/su80jec.phtml〉.
66. Report of the National Energy Policy Development Group (May 2001), at 8-4, 8-5; 〈http://www.whitehouse.gov/energy/National-Energy-Policy. pdf〉.
67. Country Analysis Brief: Iraq, 〈http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/ iraq.html〉.
68. Bush, Address to the Nation on War with Iraq, 17 March 2003.
69. See e.g. Thomas L. Friedman, "A War of Choice, Not Necessity", International Herald Tribune, 10 March 2003;
70. "Albright says U.S. made choice to fight Iraq", Denver Post, 1 April 2004.
71. See e.g. John G. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, "An Unnecessary War", Foreign Policy, 134 (Jan/Feb 2003), pp. 50-60.
72. See e.g. Thomas Carothers, "Why Dictators aren't Dominoes", Foreign Policy, 137 (Jul/Aug 2003), p. 59.
73. Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O'Neill (New York, 2004), pp. 85-86, 278.
74. See Rowan Scarborough, "U.S. Miscalculated Security for Iraq", Washington Times, 28 August 2003.
75. "United Nations Weapons Inspectors Report to Security Council on Progress in Disarmament of Iraq", UN Press Release SC/7682 (3 March 2003).
76. Carnegie Report, p. 59.
77. The messages were initially sent through Syrian intelligence agencies and through French, German and Russian diplomatic channels. In February and March 2003, Iraqi officials contacted senior officials of the U.S. Government including analysts in the office of US Under-Secretary of Defense for Policy and Planning Douglas J. Feith, and other influential Pentagon advisers such as Defense Policy Board member Richard Perle. See e.g. Julian Borger, Brian Whitaker and Vikram Dodd, "Saddam's desperate offers to stave off war", Guardian, 7 November 2003.
78. See e.g. James Risen, "Baghdad Scrambled to Offer Deal to US as War Loomed", New York Times, 5 November 2003.