Mabel carney at teachers college: From home missionary to white ally

Teachers College Record

Volumn 107, Issue 12, 2005, Pages 2599-2633

  Weiler, Kathleen ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 33745307276     PISSN: 01614681     EISSN: 14679620     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00630.x     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Racial and ethnic terminology in the period covered in this article underwent several shifts. My choice of terms here reflects these historical changes and the complexity of contemporary usage. I want to thank Professors Margaret Crocco and Cally Waite for sharing their research files on Carney from Fisk and Virginia State Universities.
2. Robyn Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
3. Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue (New York; Oxford, 1991).
4. See, for example, Jacqueline Dowd Hall, Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign against Lynching (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979);
5. Lillian Smith, Killers of the Dream (New York, 1949).
6. For a contemporary discussion of the concept of the White ally, see Beverly Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria! And Other Conversations about Race (New York: Basic Books, 1997).
7. Kolchin, Peter. "Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America," Journal of American History 89 (June 2002): 170.
8. Mabel Carney was born in 1885 in Carthage, Missouri, the eldest of ten children of James and Elizabeth Carney. In 1896, when she was eleven, the Carney family moved to Marseilles, Illinois, eighty-five miles south of Chicago. Although the family experienced hard times after the Depression of 1896, Carney managed to remain in high school, graduating from Marseilles High School in 1901. That year, when she was sixteen, she entered Illinois Normal School at DeKalb. But like many young women with limited resources, Carney had to leave full-time study at Normal School in order to support herself by teaching in rural schools. Her most formative experience in these early years seems to have been her time teaching at the John Swaney Consolidated School, a model rural school developed by the Clear Creek Friends Community. Between 1906 and 1909, Carney taught at Western Normal School in Macomb, Illinois. She continued to take summer courses at the Illinois Normal School and finally received her teaching certificate in 1909. After completing the course of study at Illinois Normal School, with eight years' experience teaching in one-room, consolidated, and normal schools, Carney entered Teachers College, Columbia, at that time the best-known school of education in the United States, to study for her bachelor of arts degree. She spent the 1910-1911 academic year in residence in New York, receiving her B.A. in 1911.
9. Lawrence Cremin, The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), 84.
10. National Education Association, "Report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools," Addresses and Proceedings (1897): 385;
11. James Madison, "John D. Rockefeller's General Education Board and the Rural School Problem in the Midwest," History of Education Quarterly (Summer 1984): 181-99.
12. See, for example, David B. Danbom, "Rural Education Reform and the Country Life Movement, 1900-1920," Agricultural History 53 (1979): 462-74.
13. One of the most influential of these works was Evelyn Dewey's New Schools for Old (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1919), a study of the introduction of democratic and progressive methods at the Porter School in Kirksville, Missouri.
14. As Carney commented, "Intimate experience has so ingrained the realism of country school conditions upon my point of view that I have disregarded the conventionalities of literary form, and shall refer to the country teacher throughout this discussion by the use of thefeminine pronoun" (37). Mabel Carney, Country Life and The Country School. (Chicago: Row, Peterson and Company), 1912.
15. Carney had no question of the capability of women teachers to hold these positions, as her description of the opportunity and advantages of the country teacher for community leadership shows: "In the first place, the position of the teacher as a director of children requires that she be at least something of a leader; the more developed her powers of leadership, the greater her influence both within and without the schoolroom. Moreover, people turn to the school as a center of authority, and look to the teacher, without jealousy or criticism, as one who has the right to lead .... She also embodies a new point of view with often a larger perspective than any one else, and is sensitive to community needs and conditions .... She is also the guardian of the educational interests of the community and may easily enlarge her office to include adult instruction and thus introduce ideas of progress relating to all phases of farm living, social, economic, and scientific. The fact that she usually comes from outside the neighborhood and has no pecuniary interests to promote also adds to her power" (189), Country Life and the Country School.
16. Lawrence Cremin, The Wonderful World of Ellwood Cubberley (New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications, 1965);
17. Raymond Callahan, Education and the Cull of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
18. Ellwood Cubberley, Rural Life and Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1922), 283.
19. All subsequent quotations from Mabel Carney, "Woman's Contribution to Education," Journal of Education 109 (May 1929): 529.
20. Mabel Carney to Dean James Russell, March 26, 1917. Box 11, File 184B, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
21. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record, 27 (March 1927): 752.
22. Dunn continued to be active in rural education through the 1930s. During the Depression, she participated in New Deal programs. In March 1933, for example, she attended the conference of Southern Mountain in Knoxville, proceeding to Berea and Antioch to consult. "Notes," Teachers College Record (May 1933): 763.
23. National Education Association. Addresses and Proceedings 1907-1940 (Washington: National Education Association). As president, Carney encouraged presentations on progressive and democratic education. In a 1924 article in the Journal of Rural Education, Carney listed the benefits of the rural school reform that she envisioned: "A richer social life, school consolidation and the county unit, better salaries, good supervision, a professionalized county superintendency, a standardized training for rural teachers, and a whole larger vision and idealism of the possibilities of country life are some, and only some of the essential factors, which must enter into such a state revival as is here implied" (404). Mabel Carney, "Practical Standards for Departments of Rural Education in Normal Schools and Teacher's College," Journal of Rural Education 3 (May/June 1924): 404.
24. Ina Barnes, Rural School Management (New York: Macmillan, 1923), 2. After her year as president, Carney continued to be involved in the activities of the NEA's Rural Education Department, serving as chair of the Committee on Resolutions in 1931 and as a member of the National Advisory Committee on Education.
25. Carney was also a close friend of Helen Heffernan, Commissioner of Rural and Elementary Education in California, in these years. Heffernan succeeded Carney as president of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association in 1930.
26. The first course on rural education at Teachers College seems to have been offered in 1912; by 1916, students were able to major in Rural Education. According to Carney's 1918 Teachers College Record article, "The Service of Teachers College to Rural Education," the new Department of Rural Education was to be organized into three divisions: the country life division; the division of rural elementary education, teacher training, and supervision; and the division of rural secondary education. A laboratory school was to be established in New Jerseyfor local field activities. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 17 (March 1916): 288-91;
27. Mabel Carney, "The Service of Teachers College to Rural Education," Teachers College Record 19 (January 1918): 155.
28. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 19 (November 1918): 496.
29. Margaret Crocco and Gally Waite, "The Education of African Americans at Teachers College, Columbia University from 'Plessy' to 'Brown': A Research Report." Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, April 2000.
30. Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), 5.
31. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques and Horace Mann Bond, The Education of the Negro in the American Social Order (New York: Octagon Books, 1966).
32. Carter G. Woodson, The Miseducation of the Negro (Washington: Associated Publishers, 1933).
33. See also David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race: Vol. 2 (New York: Holt, 2000).
34. James Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);
35. William Watkins, The While Architects of Black Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 2001);
36. Robert Arnove, ed., Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982);
37. Eric Anderson and Alfred Moss, Dangerous Donations: Northern Philanthropy and Southern Black Education, 1902-1930 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999).
38. For a critical view of the Northern philanthropists, see Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, and Watkins, The White Architects of Black Education. The essays in Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism (Ed. Arnove) examine philanthropy more broadly in the context of international capitalism.
39. For a more sympathetic view of the U.S. philanthropists and race, see Anderson and Moss, Dangerous Donations: Northern Philanthropy and Southern Black Education, 1902-1930.
40. Mabel Garney to Dean James Russell, November 22, 1922. Box 11, File 184B, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
41. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 21 (September 1920): 405;
42. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 25 (May 1924): 256.
43. Jones himself is a controversial figure. W. E. B. Du Bois called him the "evil genius of the Black race" because of his early support of industrial education for African Americans. For conflicting evaluations of his career, see Watkins, The White Architects of Black Education;
44. and Anderson and Moss, Dangerous Donations
45. Herbert Kliebard explores Jones's earlier career in " 'That Evil Genius of the Black Race': Thomas Jesse Jones and Educational Reform," Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 10 (1994): 5-20.
46. Mabel Carney to Dr. R. J. Leonard, December 10, 1924. Box 11, File 184B, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
47. See Richard Glotzer, "The Career of Mabel Garney: The Study of Race and Rural Development in the United States and South Africa." Unpublished manuscript. Box 28, Folder 388, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary, Hartford, Connecticut.
48. Edward Berman, "Educational Colonialism in Africa: The Role of American Foundations, 1910-1945," in Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad, ed. Robert Arnove (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 179-202.
49. For a summary of Loram's career, see R. Hunt Davis, "Charles T. Loram and an American Model for African Education in South Africa," African Studies Review 19 (1976): 87-99.
50. "Notes," Teachers College Record 27 (March 1926): 666.
51. See James Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South (University of North Carolina Press, 1988), for a discussion of the GEB's policies.
52. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979).
53. Wrong later headed the International Committee on Christian Literature for Africa. For discussions of Wrong's later career, see Ruth Compton Brouwer, "Books for Africans: Margaret Wrong and the Gendering of African Writing, 1929-1963," The International Journal of African Historical Studies 31 (1998): 53-71
54. and Ruth Compton Brouwer, "Margaret Wrong's Literacy Work and the 'Remaking of Woman' in Africa, 1929-48," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 23 (1995): 427-52.
55. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Privately printed, page 2. Historical Reference, Mabel Carney. Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
56. Mabel Carney, "African Letters.", Ibid., 2.
57. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 22.
58. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 20.
59. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 21.
60. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 4.
61. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 2.
62. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 9.
63. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 16.
64. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 3.
65. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 25.
66. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 16.
67. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 8.
68. Mabel Carney, "African Letters." Ibid., 19.
69. "Rural Education," "teachers College Record 27 (March 1927): 752.
70. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, April 12, 1929. Rosenwald File. Box 185, File 6, Fisk University Archives.
71. Carney described the meeting in a letter to Dean Russell, noting that Embree was particularly interested in the "interracial activities" at Teachers College. Carney suggested to Dean Russell that they ask the Rosenwald Fund for "about $1000 a year with which to develop two good series of unit course lectures on Negro education and Race Relations," building upon the successful lecture series they already ran. Mabel Carney to Dean Russell, April 22, 1929. Box 12, File 186, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
72. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, May 31, 1929. Box 12, File 187, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
73. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 31 (March 1930): 593. The pamphlet advertising the series placed American race relations in the context of international politics, noting that approximately one thousand foreign students studied at Columbia University each year. These students were curious about American race relations, "while American students, both colored and white, particularly of the younger group, are beginning to comprehend the seriousness of the situation and the necessity for broader principles and new techniques in its solution." Teachers College Columbia University, "Lectures on Negro Education and Race Relations," February 10 to April 28, 1930, Fisk University Archives.
74. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, March 22, 1930. Fisk University Archives;
75. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, April 10, 1930. Box 12, File 187, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
76. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, March 22, 1930.
77. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, April 10, 1930. Box 12, File 187, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
78. Teachers College, Columbia University. Lectures on Negro Education and Race Relations. February 4 to April 15, 1931. Fisk University Archives.
79. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, October 10, 1931. Fisk University Archives.
80. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, May 31, 1929. Box 12, File 187, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
81. In 1929, for example, Carney wrote to Dean Russell, requesting a scholarship for Abra Asgrey, an African American student. Mabel Carney to James Russell, April 30, 1929. Box 12, Folder 186, James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
82. Mabel Carney to Jackson Davis, March 13, 1930. Box 33, Folder 1, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
83. Mabel Carney to Edna Colson, May 9, 1930. Box 33, Folder 1, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
84. Mabel Carney to Miss Pauline Benton, May 14, 1930. Box 33, Folder 1, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
85. Mabel Carney to Miss Pauline Benton, May 24, 1930. Box 33, Folder 1, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
86. After Colson left Teachers College to join the faculty of the Virginia State College, Carney continued to stay in contact with her. Colson was polite and appreciative in her letters in return. In a letter thanking Carney for materials that she had sent, Colson wrote, "I hear you are going to Africa again this summer. Is that true? If so, Africa is fortunate. Your efforts in behalf of the education of Negroes have certainly won the admiration of those who study the problem sincerely" (Edna Colson to Mabel Carney. April 12, 1934. Box 33, Folder 2, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University). Carney was a member of Colson's dissertation committee and, typically, she went beyond simply reading chapters or suggesting research methods. In a letter to Dr. John Gandy of Virginia State, for example, Carney asked whether he might be able to give Colson a lighter teaching load in the fall so that she would have time to work on her dissertation. When Colson first submitted her dissertation, two of her readers were highly critical. Carney asked the administration to add a different reader, arguing that Colson's work had been misread by professors unfamiliar with her topic and approach. When Dr. Hallenbeck was asked to join the committee, Carney wrote to him, volunteering to answer any questions he might have and describing Edna Colson as "one of the most able colored women in the United States" (Mabel Carney to Dr. W. C. Hallenbeck, May 20, 1936. Box 33, Folder 5, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University). But in 1938, Colson wrote again to Carney about the continued criticisms of her committee. Dr. Hallenbeck also seems to have had serious reservations about Colson's dissertation, although the nature of these criticisms is not clear. In June 1938, Colson wrote to Carney that she was planning to ask for a leave of absence in order to complete revisions (Edna Colson to Mabel Carney. June 10, 1938. Box 33, Folder 6, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University). Colson finally received her doctorate in 1941.
87. "Negro Education and Race Relations." Mimeograph. Box 28, Folder 381, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
88. Dean Capen to Mabel Carney, February 1, 1928. Box 28, Folder 381, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
89. "Problems of Missionary Education." 1928. Box 28, Folder 387, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
90. Mabel Carney to Dean Capen, January 23, 1932. Box 28, Folder 381, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
91. Dean Capen to Mabel Carney, January 27, 1932. Box 28, Folder 381, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
92. See the discussion of Boas and his school in Lee Baker, From Savage to Negro (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
93. Mabel Carney to Franz Boas, October 8, 1926. Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
94. Mabel Carney to Dean Capen, December 31, 1932. Box 28, Folder 382, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
95. Teachers College, Columbia University. Courses in Rural Education, Summer Session, July 10 to August 18, 1933. Fisk University Archives.
96. Mary McLeod Bethune to Mabel Carney, January 4, 1932, Carney Papers
97. Cited in Alice Carney, "Mabel Carney: Adult Educator and Champion of Rural Education" (Edl) dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1993). Six years later, Carney was instrumental in bringing Bethune to Teachers College, where she was one of the speakers at the Negroes in Africa and America Today program sponsored by the Negro Education Club. A flyer advertised the program: "This program will be one of the most interesting and significant productions ever sponsored by a student group in Teachers College. Mrs. Mary McLeod Bethune, chief speaker of the evening, is commonly regarded by those qualified to judge as one of the greatest living American women today and as a platform orator second to none. Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones is an authority of international reputation in African affairs while the film presented will be authentic, colorful, and strikingly informative.
98. "The Negro in America Today." Mimeograph. Box 28, Folder 385, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
99. Richard Glotzer, "The Career of Mabel Carney: The Study of Race and Rural Development in the United States and South Africa." Unpublished manuscript, Mabel Carney papers, Hartford Seminary.
100. "Educational Tour to Mexico," Box 28, Folder 388, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
101. Mabel Carney to Dr. John Gandy, June 3, 1933. Box 33, Folder 2, Special Collections, Virginia State University.
102. "Second Annual Cooperative Conference-Tour of Nova Scotia." n.d. Box 28, folder 387, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
103. George Counts, Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? (New York: John Day, 1932);
104. Chester Bowers, The Progressive Educator and the Depression (New York: Random House, 1969).
105. Lawrence Cremin, David Shannon, and Mary Evelyn Townsend, A History of Teachers College Columbia University (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954), 166-69.
106. See Ronald Goodenow, "The Progressive Educator, Race and Ethnicity in the Depression Years: An Overview." History of Education Quarterly (Winter 1975): 365-394
107. For information about Du Bois's life, see O. L. Davis, "Rachel Davis DuBois: Intercultural Education Pioneer," in Bending the Future to Their Will, ed. Margaret Crocco and O. L. Davis (Boulder: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 169-85;
108. Nicholas Montalto, A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement 1924-1941 (New York: Garland, 1982).
109. For an overview of the impact of the intercultural movement, see Abraham Citron, Collin Reynolds, and Sarah Taylor, "Ten Years of Intercultural Education in Educational Magazines," Harvard Educational Review 15 (March 1945): 129-33;
110. Shafali Lal, "Securing the Children: Social Science, Children, and the Meaning of Race 1939-1968" (PhD diss., Yale University, 2002).
111. "Educational Vanguard," Vol. 1, No. 2. Box 12, Folder 186. James Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
112. According to Cremin, Shannon, and Townsend (A History of Teachers College, 172), this publication may have appeared earlier under the names Red Researcher and the Spark, the Columbia Spark, and later as The Vanguard-Scholar.
113. "Educational Vanguard," Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 1.
114. Seth Low Residents to Dean Russell, April 21, 1936. Box 15, File: Committee on Race Relations, William Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
115. Untitled typescript. Box 15, File: Committee on Racial Relations. William Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
116. Untitled typescript. Box 15, File: Committee on Racial Relations. William Russell Papers, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
117. "Critique of the Dual System in the U.S.," n.p. Report by Class Committee in Education 246D, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. May 19, 1937, n.p. Fisk University Archives.
118. "Some Things Teachers College Should Do to Promote More Wholesome Attitudes and Better Relations Toward Negroes." Report by Class Committee in Education 246D, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. May 19, 1937, Fisk University Archives.
119. "Critique of the Dual System in the U.S." Report by Class Committee in Education 246D, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. May 19, 1937, Fisk University Archives.
120. "Some Things Teachers College Should Do to Promote More Wholesome Attitudes and Better Relations Toward Negroes"
121. Mabel Carney to Raymond Paty, June 8, 1938, Fisk University Archives.
122. Mabel Carney to Edwin Embree, August 3, 1939, Fisk University Archives.
123. Edwin Embree to Mabel Carney, September 7, 1939, Fisk University Archives.
124. Mabel Carney, "Confidential Statement for Personal Friends," February 1, 1942. Box 33, Folder 3, Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
125. In 1938, her involvement with the seminary had been curtailed and her course given to Dr. Mason Olcott, a returning missionary from India. Typically, Carney was gracious about this change. She wrote to Capen, "I have greatly enjoyed my association with your institution, but Dr. Olcott's long experience in the mission field makes him much better qualified to do this work for you than I can ever hope to be. P.S. In case Dr. Olcott locates elsewhere I shall, of course, be glad to go on with my present arrangement at Hartford. In this event, however, I am willing, as previously stated, to have my compensation reduced to $400 because of the present difference in the cost of foreign travel." In the end, the seminary did hire Olcott but asked Carney to be part of their staff and to come up to Hartford for a few seminars or lectures. Carney wrote back in her usual gracious manner, saying that Capen was "showing great wisdom" in hiring Olcott and that she would be pleased to continue "an occasional association which may be desirable." But in 1940, professors at Teachers College took a fifteen percent pay cut, and when Olcott did not work out, Carney returned to the seminary for the 1940-1941 academic year. Mabel Carney to Dean Capen, October 24, 1938. Box 28, Folder 382, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
126. Mabel Carney, "Faculty and Students of Teachers College," November 19, 1941. Box 28, Folder 386, Mabel Carney Papers, Hartford Seminary.
127. Mabel Carney, "Faculty and Students of Teachers College," November 19, 1941. Mabel Carney Papers, Box 28, Folder 386, Hartford Seminary.
128. "Teachers College and the Education and Welfare of Negroes." Report submitted to the Teachers College Administration and Faculty, August 14, 1942, page 2. Vertical File 790716, Folder 153, Historical Reference Mabel Carney, Special Collections, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
129. "Teachers College and the Education and Welfare of Negroes." Report submitted to the Teachers College Administration and Faculty, August 14,1942, page 2. Vertical File 790716, Folder 153, Historical Reference Mabel Carney, Special Collections, Milbank Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.
130. Special Collections Ibid., 3.
131. Special Collections, Ibid., 10.
132. Special Collections, Ibid., 11.
133. Special Collections, Ibid., 12.
134. "Rural Education," Teachers College Record 36 (May 1935): 744.
135. That year, the goals of the club were stated as (1) to advance the interests of Negro life and education throughout the United States; (2) to promote fellowship, acquaintance, and esprit de corps among its members, both colored and white; and (3) to develop greater knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of Negroes and their achievements and needs on the part of white students and faculty in Teachers College. "The Negro Education Club." Mimeograph. Mabel Carney Papers, Box 28, Folder 388, Hartford Seminary.
136. "Concerning Negro Education, Professor Carney and Teachers College, Columbia University." Mimeographed letter. Box 33, Folder 3. Special Collections, Johnston Memorial Library, Virginia State University.
137. Walter Daniel, "Negro Welfare and Mabel Carney at Teachers College, Columbia University," Journal of Negro Education 11 (1942): 561.
138. Lee Baker, From Savage, to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896-1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 1.