Regional ocean governance: The role of the public trust doctrine

Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 187-204

  Fletcher, Kristen M ^a  

^a ROGER WILLIAMS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; GOVERNANCE APPROACH;

EID: 33745199396     PISSN: 10643958     EISSN: 10643958     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Depending on which definition of "region" is used, some view the Northeast (typically thought of as New York to Maine) as a subregion of the larger Northe WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS OF IMPROVING REGIONAL OCEAN GOVERNANCE IN THE UNITED STATES, AN OVERVIEW OF POLICY ISSUES A (Dec. 9, 2002), avaavailable atilable at http:/www.udel.edu/CMS/csmp/pdf/ RegionalProceedings.pdf
2. (citing Ken Sherman, SusSustainability, Biomass Yiel Perspectivetainability, Biomass Yields, and Health of Coastal Ecosystems: An Ecological Perspective, 112 MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES 277, 277-301 (1994)
3. For purposes of this article, the discussion of the PTD is limited to the scope of discussion of ROG. A wealth of background and critical analysis exists in legal journals, including Joseph L. Sax, The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention, 68 MICH. L. REV. 473 (1970);
4. Joseph L. Sax, LibLiberating the Public Trust Doctrine From Its Historical Shackleserating the Public Trust Doctrine From Its Historical Shackles, 14 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 185 (1980);
5. Charles F. Wilkinson, TheThe Headwaters of the Public Trust: Some Thoughts on the Source and Scope of the Traditional Doctrine Headwaters of the Public Trust: Some Thoughts on the Source and Scope of the Traditional Doctrine, 19 ENVTL. L. 425 (1989);
6. and Carol M. Rose, JosJoseph Sax and the Idea of the Public Trust, 25 ECOLOGY L.Q. 351 (1998).
7. DAVID C. SLADE, R. KERRY KEHOE & JANE K. STAHL, PUTTING THE PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE TO WORK 15 (2d ed. 1997).
8. Id Id.. at 3.
9. Polard v. Hagan, 44 U.S. 212, 222, 228-29 (1845) (finding that the new U.S. states joined the Union on an equal footing with the original thirteen states).
10. 152 U.S. 1 (1894).
11. Id Id.. at 26.
12. Id Id..
13. 484 U.S. 469 (1988).
14. Id Id.. at 472.
15. Id Id.. at 475
16. (citing ShiShivelyvely, 152 U.S. at 26).
17. Id Id.. at 490.
18. For a full account of the PhiPhillips Petroleumllips Petroleum Co. decision and its aftermath in Mississippi, see John A. Duff & Kristen M. Fletcher, Augmenting the Public Trust: The Secretary of State's Efforts to Create a Public Trust Ecosystem Regime in Mississippimenting the Public Trust: The Secretary of State's Efforts to Create a Public Trust Ecosystem Regime in Mississippi, 67 MISS. L.J. 645 (1998).
19. However, "navigation" can vary between states; seesee Adams v. Pease, 2 Conn. 481, 483 (1818);
20. Cobb v. Davenport, 32 N.J.L. 369, 378 (1867);
21. West v. Slick, 326 S.E. 2d 601, 617 (N.C. 1985).
22. The U.S. Supreme Court has noted that the traditional public rights included the right to bathe. Martin v. Waddell, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 367, 414 (1842).
23. Additionally, recreational activities have been deemed to include "whatever is needed for the complete and innocent enjoyment" of trust lands. Tr. of the Freeholders & Commonalty of Brookhaven v. Smith, 80 N.E. 665, 670 (N.Y. 1907).
24. Sax, The The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law, supsupra ra note 22, at 477.
25. Marks v. Whitney, 491 P.2d 374, 380 (Cal. 1971).
26. 146 U.S. 387 (1892).
27. Id Id.. at 453.
28. Id Id.. at 452-53.
29. SeeSee alsalso o Nat'l Audubon Soc'y v. Super. Ct., 658 P.2d 709, 721-22 (Cal. 1983);
30. Nedtweg v. Wallace, 208 N.W. 51, 55 (Mich. 1926)
31. E. E.g.g., PA. CONST. art. I, § 27; FLA. CONST. art. X, § 11; HAW. CONST. art. XII, § 4; ALA. CONST. art. I, § 24; MINN. CONST. art. II, § 2; S.C. CONST. art. II, § 2; S.C. CONST. art. 14, §§ 1, 4; WIS. CONST. art. IX, § 1.
32. PEW OCEANS COMM'N, AMERICA'S LIVING OCEANS: CHARTING A COURSE FOR SEA CHANGE 26 (2003), avaavailable atilable at http://www.pewtrusts.org/pdf/ env_pew_oceans_final_report.pdf.
33. U.S. COMM'N ON OCEAN POLICY, AN OCEAN BLUEPRINT FOR THE 21ST 1st CENTURY: FINAL REPORT OF THE U.S. COMMISSION ON OCEAN http://www.oceancommission.gov/documents/full_color_rpt/ 000_ocean_full_report.pdf.
34. Id Id..
35. Id Id..
36. COUNCIL ON ENVTL. QUALITY, U.S. OCEAN ACTION PLAN: THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S RESPONSE TO THE U.S. COMMISSI'n ON ON OCEAN http://ocean.ceq.gov/actionplan.pdf [hereinafter U.S. OCEAN ACTION PLAN].
37. Id Id..
38. Testimony of Governor Donald L. Carcieri to the Comm. on Ocean policy (Apr. 5, 2005) (on file with author).
39. E. E.g.g., Letter from Governor L. Carcieri to Governor M. Jodi Rell (Apr. 4, 2005) (on file with author).
40. Id Id..
41. More information on the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premieres is availablssse at http://www.negc.org/premiers.html (last visited Mar. 6, 2006)
42. Resolutions of the New England Governors Conference are available at http://www.negc.org/documents/Resolutions.pdf (last visited Mar. 6, 2006).
43. Resolution 29-3, Resolution Concerning Oceans (Aug. 29, 2005), avaavailable at ilable at http://www.negc.org/documents/Resolutions.pdf.
44. Id Id..
45. For a sample of leading issues for regional concern, see CICIN-SAIN, supsupra ra note 1, at 7.
46. The concerns listed include fishing habitats and stocks, development patterns, and implications of development of new uses of the Exclusive Economic Zone ("EEZ"), such as offshore aquaculture and wind farming. See also INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT, UNCED AGENDA 21 ch. 17.3 (1992), avaavailable at ilable at http://www.un.org/esa/Sustdev/ documents/agenda21/english/agenda21%20chapter17.htm (defining the EEZ as "an important marine area where the States manage the development and conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people").
47. Resolution 29-2, Resolution Concerning Energy (Aug. 29, 2005), avaavailable at ilable at http://www.negc.org/documents/Resolutions.pdf.
48. Resolution 29-4, Resolution on the Environment (Aug. 29, 2005), avaavailable at ilable at http://www.negc.org/documents/Resolutions.pdf.
49. Se Seee KIM ENGIE, AN OVERVIEW OF REGIONAL COORDINATION IN THE GREAT LAKES, GULF OF MAINE, AND CHESAPEAKE BAY (2004) available at http://courses.washington.edu/oceangov/reference_mtls/USRegOview.pdf.
50. John H. Dunnigan, Nat'l Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin. Ecosystem Goal Team, Lecture at the Coastal Zone Conference (July 20, 2005).
51. The Council of Atlantic Premieres describes the relationship of the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers as "a unique and highly effective international relationship of states and provinces ideas and building on historic ties. The Conference advances the interests of the eleven jurisdictions through cooperation and encourages collaboration will the private sector." See http://www.cap-cpma.ca/defauk.asp?mn=1.62.4.28 (last visited Jan. 5, 2006).
52. For analysis of the tobacco litigation, see Wendy E. Parmet, Tob Tobacco, HIV and the Courtroom: The Role of Affirmafive Litigation in the Formation of Pu Litigation in the Formation of Public Health Policy, 36 HOUS. L. REV. 1663 (1999);
53. Margaret A. Little, A MA Most Dangerous Indiscretion: The Legal, Economic, and Political Legacy of the Governments' Tobacco Litigationost Dangerous Indiscretion: The Legal, Economic, and Political Legacy of the Governments' Tobacco Litigation, 33 CONN. L. REV. 1143 (2001).
54. Th The Role of State Attorneys General in National Environmental Policy: Welcome & Global Warming Panel, Part le Role of State Attorneys General in N: COLUM. J. ENVTL. L. 335, 347 (2005) (statement of Richard Blumenthal, Attorney General of Connecticut).
55. Id Id.. at 346 (statement of Richard Blumenthal).
56. Id Id..
57. Id Id.. at 349.
58. Id Id.. at 339.
59. For more information on interstate compacts for natural resource management, see Jill Elaine Hasclay, Intinterstate Compacts in a Democratic Society: The Problem of Permanency, 49 FLA. L. REV. 1 (1997);
60. Jeffrey Uhlman Beaverstock, LeaLeaming to Get Along: Alabama, Georgia, Florida and the Chattahoo Chattahoochee River Compact, 49 ALA. L. REV. 993 (1998);
61. Joseph W. Dellapenna, TheThe Law of Water Allocation in the Southeastern States at the Op States at the Opening of the 21 st Century, 25 U. ARK. LITTLE ROCK L. REV. 9 (2002);
62. Jonathan I. Chamey, The The Delimitation of Lateral Seaward Bou Seaward Boundaries Between States in a Domestic Context, 75 AM. J. INTL L. 28 (1981);
63. Marissa S. Briggett, StaState Supremacy in the Federal Realm Interstate Compact, 18 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 751 (1991).
64. U.S. CONST. art. 1, § 10, cl. 3.
65. Se See e FREDERICK L. ZIMMERMANN & MITCHELL WENDELL, THE LAW AND USE OF INTERSTATE COMPACTS 25 (1976), avaavailable at ilable http://www.csg.org/ NR/rdonlyres/ edgtwasgvq22amg5ba3zsqreagu4cjodzjidnhzfy45t3l6j3tg6xlpief7tm 2ktxj4cu7ydmm2h4tuwm7gn5ka74dd/The+Law+and+
66. 77 Pub. L. 539,
67. 56 Stat. 267 (1942)
68. (codified at 16 U.S.C. §§ 5101 - 5108 (2000)).
69. The states are: Florida (Atlantic coast only), Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.Elizabeth C. Scott, ManManaging the Maine Lobster Fishery: An Evaluation of Alternativesaging the Maine Lobster Fishery: An Evaluation of Alternatives, 20 VA. ENVTL. L. J. 573, 583 (2001).
70. U.S.C. § 5101.
71. Scoff, supsuprara note 4848, at 583-84.
72. Statement of Vince O'Shea, Executive Dir., Atl. States Marine Fisheries Comm'n (Jan. 13, 2006) (on file with author).
73. Id Id..
74. Id Id..
75. Id Id..
76. Stephen David Galowitz, Infinterstate Metro-Regional Responses to Exclusionary Zoningerstate Metro-Regional Responses to Exclusionary Zoning, 27 REAL PROP. PROB. & TR. J. 49, 118-23 (1992).
77. Id Id.. at 45.
78. Id Id.. at 46..
79. Jon Cannon, ChoChoices and Institutions in Watershed Managementices and Institutions in Watershed Management, 25 WM. & MARY ENVTL. L. & POL' REV. 379, 392 (2000)
80. (citing Helen M. Ingram, TheThe Political Economy of Regional Watershed Institutions Political Economy of Regional Watershed Institutions, 55 AM. J. AGRIC. ECON. 10, 17 (1973)).
81. Id Id.. at 392
82. (citing NAT'L RESEARCH COUNCIL, NEW STRATEGIES FOR AMERICA'S WATERSHEDS 186 (1999)).
83. For a review of the role of federal and state consent in interstate compacts, see Marlissa S. Briggett, StaState Supremacy in the Federal Realm: The Interstate Com 18 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 751, 757-67 (1991).
84. For a review of challenges of interstate compacts, see Jill Elaine Hasday, Intinterstate Compacts in a D Democratic Society: The Problem of Permanency, 49 FLA. L. REV. 1 (1997).
85. Se Seee Robert L. Fischman, TheThe National Wildlife Refuge System and the Hallmarks of Modem Organic Legislation National Wildlife Refuge System and the Hallmarks of Modern Organic Legislation, 29 ECOLOGY L.Q. 457, 581 (2002).
86. Id Id..
87. Id Id. at 582.
88. Se Seee Richard J. Lazarus, ChaChanging Conceptions of Property and Sovereignty in Natural Resources: Questioning the Public Trust Doctrinenging Cc the Public Trust Doctrine, 71 IOWA L. REV. 631, 687-90 (1986);
89. James L. Huffman, A FA Fish Out of Water: The Public Trust Doctrine in a Constitutional I Democracy, 19 ENVTL. L. 527, 556 (1989);
90. James L. Huffman, TruTrusting the Public Interest to Judges: A Comment on the Public Trust Writings of Profe Judges: A Comment on the Public Trust Writings of Professors Sax, Wilkinson, Dunning and Johnson, 63 DENV. U. L. REV. 565, 582-84 (1986).
91. Se See a Rose, supsupra ra note 22, at 356.
92. Se Seee Kelly McGrath, TheThe Feasibility of Using Zoning to Reduce Conflicts in the Exclusive Economic Zone Feasibility of Using Zoning to Reduce Co (2004).
93. R.I. CONST. art. I, § 17.
94. Id Id..
95. 310 MASS. CODE REGS. 9.01(2)(a) (1987).
96. 477 U.S. 131 (1986).
97. Id Id.. at 132.
98. Id Id. at 151 (holding that states retain broad regulatory authority to protect the health and safety of citizens and the integrity of natural resources).
99. Donna R. Christie, MarMarine Reserves, the Public Trust Doctrine and Intergenerational Equityine Reserves, the Public Trust Doctrine and Intergeneration Equity, 19 J. LAND USE & ENVTL. L. 427, 432 (2004).
100. Id Id..
101. 958 P.2d 273 (Wash. 1998).
102. Id Id.. at 284.
103. 658 P.2d 709 (Cal. 1983).
104. Se Seee id.id. at 728.
105. Gregory S. Weber, ArtArticulating the Public Trust: Text, Near-Text and Contexticulating the Public Trust: Text, Near-Text and Context, 27 ARIZ. ST. L.J. 1155, 1162 (1995)
106. (citing NatNat'l Audubon Soc'y'l Audubon Soc'y, 658 P.2d at 728)
107. Id Id..
108. Id Id. at 1155.
109. Id Id..
110. Weber notes that "[f]or the first dozen years after its announcement, the decision had not spawned a single reallocation of water from a consumptive to an and its message largely inarticulate." Id.Id. at 1156.
111. Id Id. at 1156-57.
112. Leticia M. Diaz & Barry Hart Dubner, TheThe Necessity of Preventing Unilateral Responses to Water Scarcity - The Next Major Threat against Mankind thi The Next Major Threat against Mankind this Century, 9 CARDOZO J. INT'L & COMP. L. 1, 38 (2001).
113. INT'L JOINT COMM'N, PROTECTION OF THE WATERS OF THE GREAT LAKES, FINAL REPORT TO THE GOVERNMENTS OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES (2000)
114. Diaz & Dubner, supsuprara note 8282, at 39.
115. 77 Pub. L. 539,
116. 56 Stat. 267;
117. 16 U.S.C. §§ 5101-5108 (2000).
118. Resolution 29-2, Resolution Concerning Energy (Aug. 29, 2005), avaavailable at ilable at http://www.negc.org/documents/Resolutions.pdf.