Enduring freedom: Public diplomacy and U.S. foreign policy

American Quarterly

Volumn 57, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 309-333

  Kennedy, Liam ^a   Lucas, Scott ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33744986137     PISSN: 00030678     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/aq.2005.0029     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America," September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nssall.html (accessed April 10,2005)
2. Condoleezza Rice, address to U.S. Institute of Peace, August 19, 2004, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/08/20040819-5.html (accessed April 10, 2005)
3. George W. Bush press conference, October 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/ news/releases/2001/10/20011011-7.html#status-war (accessed April 10, 2005)
4. This tension stemmed from a fundamental but often unexamined illusion. "National security" is always more than the objective of protecting the territory of the United States and the lives and livelihoods of its inhabitants. It is also a construction rationalizing and justifying the extension of power-political, military, economic, and cultural-beyond the boundaries of the nation. See, for example, the critiques in David Campbell, Writing Security: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992)
5. and Anders Stephanson, "Commentary: Ideology and Neorealist Mirrors," Diplomatic History 17.2 (spring 1993): 285-95
6. "Hyde Introduces Reform of U.S. Public Diplomacy; Will Improve America's Outreach to International Mass Audiences," March 14, 2002, reprinted at http://www.house.gov/international_relations/107/news0314.htm (accessed April 10, 2005)
7. The concept of "political warfare," recognized and bureaucratically incorporated into British strategy in World War II through initiatives such as the Political Warfare Executive, has received little attention in histories of U.S. foreign policy and operations. In part, this is because the concept has rarely been acknowledged openly by U.S. policy makers, with terms such as "psychological strategy" being used in the early cold war. However, the guidelines, portions of which are cited in this article, which were drafted by George Kennan and the State Department Policy Planning Staff, establish the central place of "political warfare" in U.S. strategy. Indeed, before and after setting out the guidelines, Kennan consulted closely with British colleagues and visited London to discuss the development and imple-mentation of political warfare. See William Daugherty and Morris Janowitz, eds., A Psychological War-fare Casebook (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958)
8. Scott Lucas, Freedom's War: The U.S. Crusade against the Soviet Union, 1945-1956 (New York: New York University Press, 1999)
9. See "Origins of the Term 'Public Diplomacy'" in What Is Public Diplomacy?, http://www.publicdiplomacy.org/l.htm (accessed April 10,2005)
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12. Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University: Toward an Intellectual History of the Postwar Years (New York: New Press, 1997)
13. and Ron Robin, The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001)
14. See, for example, Ali Fisher and Scott Lucas, "Master and Servant? The U.S. Government and the Founding of the British Association for American Studies," European Journal of American Culture 21.1 (2002), 16-23
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16. Thomas Jefferson, "Letter to Henry Lee," May 8, 1825, in Thomas Jefferson: Writings (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1984), 1501
17. Scott Lucas, "Mobilising Culture: The CIA and State-Private Networks in the Early Cold War," in War and Cold War in American Foreign Policy, 1942-62, ed. Dale Carter and Robin Clifton (London: Macmillan, 2002)
18. Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam, eds., The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe (London: Frank Cass, 2004)
19. Helen Laville and Hugh Wilford, eds., The State-Private Network: The United States Government, American Citizen Groups, and the Cold Wir (London: Frank Cass, 2005)
20. Draft Senior NSC Staff Report NSC 114 and Annex 5, July 27, 1951, U.S. Declassified Document Reference System, 1980 284B-285A
21. On the history and activities of USIA, see Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York: Macmillan 1997)
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24. Nancy Snow, Propaganda Inc. Selling America's Culture to the World (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1998)
25. Michael Warner, ed., The CIA Under Harry Truman (Washington, D.C.: Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), 321-22
26. Policy Planning Staff report, "The Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare," May 4, 1948, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945-1950: Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, Document 269, http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/intel/260_269.html (accessed April 10, 2005)
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29. See Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999)
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31. Reinhold Wagnleitner and Elaine Tyler May, "Here, There, and Everywhere," in Here, There and Everywhere: The Foreign Politics of American Popular Culture, ed. Reinhold Wagnleitner and Elaine Tyler May (Hanover, N. H.: University Press of New England, 2000), 6
32. See also Saunders, The Cultural Cold War
33. Scott-Smith and Krabbendam, The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe
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35. See Scott Lucas, "Introduction: Negotiating Freedom," in The State-Private Network
36. Giles Scott-Smith, The Politics of Apolitical Culture (London: Routledge, 2002)
37. See the conclusion in Lucas, Freedom's War, which has been extended in Scott Lucas, "Beyond Freedom, Beyond Control: Approaches to Culture and the State-Private Network in the Cold War," in The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, 53-72
38. Quoted in Richard Cummings, The Pied Piper: Allard K. Lowenstein and the Liberal Dream (New York: Grove, 1985), and reprinted at Bob Feldman, "Time for Ford Foundation and CFR to Divest?" October 8, 2002, http://www.questionsquestions.net/feldman/ff_divest.html (accessed April 10, 2005)
39. One notable example is the range of covert activities between 1970 and 1973, supervised by Henry Kissinger, to remove Salvador Allende from power in Chile. See, for illustration, the documents provided by the National Security Archive at http://www2.gwu.edu/-nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB110/index.htm (accessed April 10,2005)
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43. Quoted in R. S. Zaharna, "The Unintended Consequences of Crisis Public Diplomacy: American Public Diplomacy in the Arab World," Foreign Policy in FoeusS, no. 2 (June 2003), http://www.fpif.org/briefs/vol8/ v8n02diplomacy.html (accessed April 10, 2005)
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46. Quoted in Ralph Dannheiser, "Senate Panel Speeds Action on Nominees to Key State Posts," September 24,2001, http://israel.usembassy.gov/ publish/peace/archives/2001/september/092516.html (accessed April 10,2005)
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63. Quoted in William Douglas, "U.S. Turns to Madison Avenue for PR War," Newsday, October 23, 2001, reprinted at http://www.commondreams.org/ headlines01/1024-06.htm (accessed April 10,2005)
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