Prophetic eyes: The theatricality of Mark Hitchcock's premillennial geopolitics

Geopolitics

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 231-255

  Sturm, Tristan ^a  

^a CARLETON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GEOPOLITICS; POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY; POLITICAL IDEOLOGY; RELIGION;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33744918801     PISSN: 14650045     EISSN: 15573028     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14650040600598452     Document Type: Article

References (191)

1. This comment is a sidebar to endnote 38 in G. Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics: The Politics of Writing Global Space (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1996) p. 276.
2. G. Dijkink, 'When Geopolitics and Religion Fuse', paper presented at the 5th Pan-European International Relations Conference, The Hague (Sept. 2004) pp. 3-6.
3. G. Ó Tuathail, 'Spiritual Geopolitics: Fr. Edmond Walsh and Jesuit Anti-Communism', in K. Dodds and D. Atkinson (eds), Geopolitical Traditions: A Century of Geopolitical Thought (London: Routledge 2000) pp. 187-210
4. L. Nyroos, 'Religeopolitics: Dissent Geopolitics and the "Fundamentalism" of Hamas and Kach', Geopolitics 6/3 (2001) pp. 135-157
5. Dijkink (note 2) pp. 1-13.
6. On how being Christian influences one's scholarship on geopolitics, see N. Megoran, 'Christianity and Political Geography: On Faith and Geopolitical Imagination', The Brandywine Review of Faith and International Affairs 2/2 (2004) pp. 40-46.
7. Scholars in the field of international relations have also studied the relationship between religion and international politics. For predominantly constructivist scholarship, see P. Hatzopoulous and P. Petito (eds), Religion in International Relations: The Return from Exile (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2003).
8. Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (note 1) p. 255.
9. A. Lieven, American Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press 2004) p. 144.
10. F. Newport, 'Who Are the Evangelicals?', Gallup News Service (June 24, 2005), available at .
11. Lieven (note 5) p. 144.
12. P. Boyer, When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1992) p. 2. I am cautious here to cite statistics about how many premillennialists live in America
13. some, like Hitchcock, have said that as many as 23 percent of Americans are premillennialists. See M. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (Sisters, OR: Multnomah 2002) p. 69.
14. An example of my concern is when Gerald Ford felt compelled to declare himself 'born again' in 1976, even though he was an Episcopalian, because Jimmy Carter was appealing to the electorate with his 'bornagain' persuasion. See Lieven (note 5) p. 141.
15. T. Weber, On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic 2004) p. 9.
16. Contrary to 'pre'millennialism is 'post'millennialism which anticipates the coming of Christ through a human constructed utopia on Earth via evangelism and social reform. Ever since the dawn of Christianity, Christians have searched the scriptures for signs of the end time and Christ's return, and thus, well before the rise of modern American evangelicalism - from the Shakers and Jesuits to Southern Baptists and Jehovah's Witnesses. Millennial thought has waxed in times of environmental change and the turning centuries and waned in peaceful stages in history. Joachim of Fiore (ca. 1135-1202) was perhaps the 'father' of associating the history of politics (that of wars and empires) to the Book of Revelation. Not unlike dispensationalism, he also broke history into Biblical periods. See C. Koester, Revelation and the End of All Things (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing 2001) p. 8-9.
17. See also N. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Antichrists of the Middle Ages (London: Temple Smith 1970 [Originally published in 1957]) pp. 37-52, 127-47
18. and The Journal of Millennial Studies, available at .
19. Koester (note 9) p. 19. Throughout this paper I will refer to 'premillennialism' as opposed to 'dispensationalism' because Mark Hitchcock, the subject of this paper, refers to his theology as premillennialist and not as dispensationalist, though he is undoubtedly both.
20. Boyer (note 8) p. 98.
21. Ezekiel 38 is too lengthy to annotate here. See C. I. Scofield (eds), The Holy Bible, King James Version (KJV) (Korea: Oxford University Press 1996 [originally published in 1901]) pp. 883-884.
22. For a more in-depth look at the history of premillennialism, see Boyer (note 8)
23. and Koester (note 9).
24. For studies on the rhetorical qualities of premillennial thought, see F. L. Borchardt, Doomsday Speculation as a Strategy of Persuasion: A Study of Apocalypticism as Rhetoric (Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellon Press 1990)
25. and B. Brummett, Contemporary Apocalyptic Rhetoric (New York: Praeger 1991).
26. For a political and theological critique, see M. Northcott, An Angel Directs the Storm: Apocalyptic Religion and American Empire (London: I.B. Tauris 2004).
27. C. H. Dyer, The Rise of Babylon: Is Iraq at the Center of the Final Drama? (Chicago: MoodyPublishers 2003 [Originally published in 1991]) p. 140.
28. The idea of the Rapture is predominantly derived from 1 Thessalonians 4:16-17, in which St. Paul says in verse 16: 'For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God; and the dead in Christ shall rise first'; and in verse 17: 'Then we who are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, and thus we shall always be with the Lord'. New American Standard Bible (NAS) (Anaheim, CA: Foundation Publications 1995).
29. 'Left Behind' - a series of premillennial novels started by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins and published by Tyndale - is the best selling fiction series in American history with over 60 million copies sold in just over ten years.
30. Historiographer, Timothy Weber, summed premillennialism this way in his book Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming: American Premillennialism, 1875-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press 1979) quoted in Northcott (note 12) p. 59.
31. Borchardt (note 12) p. 139.
32. M. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion of Israel (Sisters, OR: Multnomah 2002) p. 23.
33. Hitchcock is making reference to Ezekiel 38:10: 'Thus says the Lord God, "It will come about on that day, that thoughts will come into your mind, and you will devise an evil plan"' referenced from the NAS (note 13).
34. Also note that Hitchcock cites between four Bible translations for the most germane scripture quotations as a strategy to support his geopolitics (see note 90)
35. KJV (note 11)
36. NAS (note 13)
37. Holy Bible, New Living Translation (NLT) (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale 1996)
38. and The Holy Bible, New International Version (NIV) (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan 1984).
39. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (note 8) p. 16.
40. Acts 17:24-26 reads: 'He is the God who made the world and everything in it. He himself gives life and breath to everything, and he satisfies every need there is. From one man he created all the nations throughout the whole Earth. He decided beforehand which should rise and fall, and he determined their boundaries'. NLT (note 17).
41. For two articles that describe Hitchcock in this manner and interview him, see B. Broadway, 'Direst of Predictions For War in Iraq: End-Time Interpreters See Biblical Prophecies Being Fulfilled', The Washington Post (8 March 2003) p. B09
42. and J. Lampton, 'The End of the World', Christian Science Monitor (18 February 2004).
43. Hitchcock is also, along with Jenkins and LaHaye, an editor and major contributor to the Left Behind online journal Interpreting the Signs which has over 20,000 monthly subscribers. Hitchcock writes the sections 'America in the End Times', 'Babylon and Other Holy Places', 'Government' and 'Russia and the EU', while Jenkins and LaHaye write in sections of 'Society' and 'Culture'. See .
44. Hitchcock and his Left Behind collaborators are not without premillennial detractors. Other premillennial groups believe America is Babylon in contrast to Hitchcock's thesis that it is Iraq - a thesis reiterated in the Left Behind series - see Iraq Revived As Mystery Babylon? Some Prophecy Interpretations Die a Hard Death: A Book Review of The Second Coming of Babylon by Mark Hitchcock (The Alpha-Omega Report 2003), available at .
45. Furthermore, Tyndale, who publishes the Left Behind series and some of Hitchcock's books, published the book, H. Hanegraaff and S. Brouwer, The Last Disciple (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale 2004). Contrary to Left Behind, Hanegraaff and Brouwer explain that many of the prophecies in the Book of Revelation have already happened before the Tribulation period. As a result and after an apparent battle with Tyndale over this eschatological debacle, LaHaye has decided to publish his new fiction series about Iraq's theological significance (titled Babylon Rising) through Random House.
46. Although Hitchcock has only sold approximately 350,000 books on the subject, a number which pales in comparison to the 50 million books sold through the Left Behind series, we must remember that Left Behind is made up of 11 authors (including Hitchcock) and, furthermore, is predominantly fiction. Because Left Behind is predominantly fiction, Hitchcock with Thomas Ice wrote the Left Behind book The Truth Behind Left Behind (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale 2004) which both critiques and confirms the prophecy laid out in the fiction series. Hence, Hitchcock acts as the 'scholarly father' of the 'truth'. Hitchcock's work, though very accessible and tabloid like, is not fiction and rather comparatively 'scholarly' and marketed as Biblical supplementation for followers (including American elected officials and policy makers) and also pastors who influence those followers with the power to vastly increase Hitchcock's readership, albeit indirectly, in formal church functions. (Hitchcock's book sales is an estimated figure from correspondence with Hitchcock on 15 August 2005.)
47. M. Hitchcock, The Silver Kingdom: Iran is History and Prophecy (Oklahoma City, OK: Hearthstone Publishing 1993)
48. M. Hitchcock, After the Empire: Bible Prophecy in Light of the Fall of the Soviet Union (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House 1994)
49. M. Hitchcock, What on Earth is Going On? (Sisters, OR: Multnomah 2002)
50. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (note 8)
51. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17)
52. M. Hitchcock, 'Alignment of the Nations: The Nations of Prophecy Are In the News, But How Do They Align With Scripture?', Interpreting the Signs (Jan. 2003)
53. M. Hitchcock, 'President of Europe: An Update on the Movement Toward Political and Economic Union in Europe', Interpreting the Signs (Jan. 2003)
54. M. Hitchcock, The Second Coming of Babylon (Sisters, OR: Multnomah Publishers 2003)
55. M. Hitchcock, What Jesus Says About the Earth's Final Days (Sisters, OR.: Multnomah Publishers 2003)
56. M. Hitchcock, 'EU Signing Ceremony The Latest Event in the Reconstitution of the Roman Empire', Interpreting the Signs (Nov. 2004).
57. This passage from S. Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press 1978) pp. 41-42
58. is quoted in D. Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1998 [Originally published in 1992]) p. 107.
59. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (note 8) pp. 77-78.
60. For a map of his geopolitics, see Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 7.
61. Daniel 11:40: 'And at the end time the king of the South will collide with him, and the king of the North will storm against him with chariots, with horseman, and with many ships; and he will enter countries, over them, and pass through'. Revelation 16:12: 'And the sixth angel poured out his bowl upon the great river, the Euphrates; and its water was dried up, that the way might be prepared for the kings from the east'. Daniel 2:40-43: 'Then there will be a fourth kingdom as strong as iron; in as much as iron crushes and shatters all things, so, like iron that breaks in pieces, it will crush and break all these in pieces. 41: And in that you saw the feet and toes, partly of potter's clay and partly of iron, it will be a divided kingdom; but it will have in it the toughness of iron, in as much as you saw the iron mixed with common clay. 42: And as the toes of the feet were partly of iron and partly of pottery, so some of the kingdom will be strong and part of it will be brittle. 43: And in that you saw the iron mixed with common clay they will combine to one another, even as iron does not combine with pottery'. NAS (note 13).
62. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) pp. 23-4.
63. F. Debrix, 'Tabloid Realism and the Revival of American Security Culture', Geopolitics 8/3 (2003) pp. 151-190
64. For 'popular geopolitics', see J. Sharp, Condensing the Cold War: Reader's Digest and American Identity (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 2000).
65. Debrix (note 28) p. 158.
66. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 74.
67. J. Sharp, 'Re-maculinizing Geopolitics? Comments on Gearóid Ó Tuathail's Critical Geopolitics', Political Geography 15/6-7 (1996) p. 362.
68. Campbell (note 24) p. 81.
69. Quoted in Boyer (note 8) p. 142.
70. See pp. 142-143 for more Reagan quotes with a premillennial bent and a discussion of Reagan's beliefs. Whether George W. Bush is a premillennialist is debatable, see Northcott (note 12) p. 67.
71. For contemporary examples of American legislators with premillennial leanings, see G. Scherer, 'The Godly Must be Crazy: Christian-Right Views Are Swaying Politicians and Threatening the Environment', Grist Magazine (Oct. 2004), available at .
72. See also C. Gallaher, 'The Religious Right Reacts to Globalization', in M. A. Tetreault and R. A. Denemark (eds), Gods, Guns, and Globalization: Religious Radicalism and International Political Economy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 2004) pp. 32-39.
73. See S. Dalby, Creating the Second Cold War (New York: Guilford 1990).
74. By this I mean, for example, Samuel Huntington's religiously based 'civilization' categories, see S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Touchstone 1996).
75. For an example of how religion affected the Cold War and was affected by it, see L. Canipe, 'Under God and Anti-Communist: How the Pledge of Allegiance Got Religion In Cold War America', Journal of Church and Society 45/3 (2003) pp. 305-323.
76. See also Northcott (note 12) pp. 25-35
77. and D. Kirby (ed.), Religion and the Cold War (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave-Macmillan 2003).
78. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 18.
79. J. Agnew, Geopolitics: Re-visioning World Politics (London: Routledge 1998) pp. 11-31.
80. Campbell (note 24) p. 18.
81. Ibid.
82. D. J. Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (London: Routledge 1992) pp. 188-196.
83. M. Jay, Downcast Eyes (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 1993) pp. 21-82
84. Ibid., p. 43. Jay makes this point as an aside in footnote 74.
85. J. Phillips, The Reformation of Images: Destruction of Art in England, 1535-1660 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 1973) p. 166
86. quoted in Jay (note 42) p. 43.
87. A. Kubiak, Agitated States: Performance in the American Theater of Cruelty (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press 2002) pp. 29-52.
88. Ibid., p. 30.
89. Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (note 1) p. 276. Ó Tuathail makes this point as an aside in endnote 38.
90. J. Agnew and S. Corbridge, Mastering Space: Hegemony, Territory and International Political Economy (London: Routledge 1995) p. 76.
91. Hitchcock, What On Earth Is Going On (note 23) p. 44. I encourage the reader to view the very theatric and geographical cover art on Hitchcock's books.
92. Haraway (note 41) p. 189.
93. Jay (note 42) p. 25.
94. Ezekiel 12:2 quoted in J. Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis, J. A. Miller (ed.), A. Sheridan (trans.) (London: Penguin 1979) p. 109.
95. Haraway (note 41) p. 96.
96. Ó Tuathail, 'Spiritual Geopolitics' (note 3) p. 188.
97. R. Girard, 'Generative Scapegoating', in R. H. Kelly (ed.), Violent Origins (Stanford, CA: Stanford University 1987) pp. 95-103.
98. See also B. R. Bater, 'Apocalyptic Religion in Christian Fundamentalism', in M. Wallace and T. H. Smith (eds), Curing Violence (Sonoma, CA: Polebridge Press) pp. 287-30
99. Agnew, Geopolitics (note 38) pp. 11-31.
100. See note 23.
101. Agnew, Geopolitics (note 38) pp. 13-17.
102. This is a reference to William Morris' novella of the same name. 'Nowhere', for Morris, is a play on Thomas More's novella Utopia - 'utopia' in Latin translates to 'nowhere'. See W. Morris, 'News from Nowhere', in Clive Wilmer (ed.), News from Nowhere and other Stories (New York: Penguin) (1998 [originally written in 1890]) pp. 41-231
103. and T. More, Utopia (1997 [originally written in 1516]) (Mineola, NY: Dover).
104. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 12.
105. See Agnew, Geopolitics (note 38) pp. 32-48.
106. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) pp. 32 and 23.
107. Boyer (note 8) p. 99.
108. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 10.
109. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 94.
110. Ibid. p. 65.
111. Hitchcock, The Silver Kingdom (note 23) p. 6.
112. Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (note 1) p. 34.
113. Ibid.
114. G. F. Kennan, 'The Sources of Soviet Conduct', Foreign Affairs 25/4 (July 1947) pp. 566-582
115. H. Mackinder, 'The Geographical Pivot of History', The Geographical Journal 170/4 (2004 [Originally published in 1904]) pp. 298-321.
116. Quoted in Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (note 1) p. 42.
117. Borchardt (note 12) p. 224.
118. Hitchcock, What on Earth is Going On? (note 23) p. 43 emphasis added.
119. D. Pettman, After the Orgy: Towards a Politics of Exhaustion (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press 2002) p. 39.
120. See also M. Foucault, 'A Preface to Transgression', in D. Bouchard (ed.), Language, Counter-Memory, Practice D. Bouchard and S. Simon (trans.) (Ithica: Cornell University Press 1977) pp. 29-52.
121. The Matrix [Motion picture] directed by Andy Wachowski and Larry Wachowski (1999)
122. Campbell (note 24) p. 88.
123. See also M. Wertheim, The Pearly Gates of Cyberspace: A History of Space from Dante to the Internet (New York: W. W. Norton 1999) pp. 44-75 and 253-282.
124. B. Diken, and C. B. Laustsen, '7-11, 9-11, and Postpolitics', Alternatives 29/1 (2004) p. 104
125. See also S. Zizek, Welcome to the Desert of the Real (London: Verso 2002).
126. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 22.
127. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 26.
128. Agnew, Geopolitics (note 38) p. 11.
129. J. Agnew, 'Commentary III: Learning From the War on Iraq', The Arab World Geographer 6/1 (2003). Available at .
130. Hitchcock, What on Earth is Going On? (note 23) p. 46.
131. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 93.
132. For a post-structuralist critique of apocalyptic thought using sexuality, see Pettman (note 74).
133. For a feminist critique of apocalyptic thought see L. Quinby, Anti-Apocalypse: Exercises in Genealogical Criticism (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1994).
134. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 107.
135. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 25.
136. Ibid., p. 27, 59, and 32-33, respectively.
137. Ibid., p. 48.
138. H. Lindsey with C. C. Carlson, The Late Great Planet Earth (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Books 1970) pp. 69-70
139. W. Gesenius, Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon S. P. Tregelles (trans.) (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans 1949) pp. 752.
140. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) pp. 107-108.
141. Many have thought America was Babylon, see S. F. Logsdon, Is the U.S.A. In Prophecy? (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan 1965) p. 9,
142. and J. V. Impe, The Great Escape (Nashville, TN: Word 1998) p. 207.
143. 'Rosh' in most Bibles (KJV, NLT, NIV, the Revised Standard Version, and the New American Bible) is an adjective meaning 'chief'. However, Hitchcock, Lindsey, Dyer, and many other premillennialists, see 'Rosh' as a proper noun (as written in the NAS, the Jerusalem Bible, and the New English Bible). Hitchcock denies that his conflation of 'Russia' with 'Rosh' is derived from alphabetic similarity.
144. See Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 39.
145. Furthermore, Meshech and Tubal, though popularised in the Scofield Study Bible (KJV) to be Moscow and Tobolsk by virtue of their similarity, are to Hitchcock incorrect interpretations and are actually part of Turkey. And last, Hitchcock parallels 'Cush' with modern Sudan, though the King James Version translates it as Ethiopia, and Gesenius (note 88) translates it as 'Black Africa', where Sudan is almost half Arab with a Sunni Muslim majority which conveniently fits with Hitchcock's 'Islamic alliance' formulation.
146. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 60.
147. Hal Lindsey (author of the best-selling book [note 88] in American history after the Bible, 35 million copies by 2004) vilifies Islam in his hate-filled book: Ever Lasting Hatred: The Roots of Jihad (Murrietta, GA: Oracle House Publishing 2002).
148. Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (note 1) p. 20.
149. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) p. 41.
150. Hitchcock, After the Empire (note 23) p. 2.
151. Campbell (note 24) p. 32.
152. See also Northcott (note 12) p. 10, 17-20.
153. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 170.
154. Agnew, Geopolitics (note 38) pp. 20-21.
155. For a discussion on the spatial separation between Heaven and Earth, see L. Thompson, 'Mapping the Apocalyptic World', in J. Scott and P. Simpson-Housley (eds), Sacred Places and Profane Spaces: Essays in the Geographics of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (New York: Greenwood Press 1991) pp. 115-130.
156. See J. Agnew, 'The Territorial Trap: The Geographical Assumptions of International Relations Theory', Review of International Political Economy 1/1 (1994) pp. 53-80.
157. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 155.
158. Hitchcock justifies America as a Holy and privileged place in the world by citing statistics that 23 percent of Americans are evangelical; while only 0.3 percent of the Middle East, 11.4 percent of Africa, 2 percent of Europe and 9.1 percent of Latin America, are evangelical. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (note 8) p. 69, 88.
159. Hitchcock, The Second Coming (note 23) p. 155.
160. 'Salt and light' is making reference to Matthew 5:13-14: 'Ye are the salt of the earth: But if the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted? It is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men'. 14: 'Ye are the light of the world. A city that is set on an hill cannot be hid'. KJV (note 11).
161. Hitchcock, Is America in Bible Prophecy? (note 8) p. 7.
162. Ibid., p. 141.
163. Ibid., p. 63.
164. Much of Hitchcock's work on the 'evil' making of Muslims is based on the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001. However, living in Oklahoma he does not problematise the 1995 terrorist attack on the Murrah Federal Building. There was nothing in the Bible or in American nationalism for him to explain why a fellow American would do such a thing. The us/them construction diverts attention from 'us' on the inside - the 'go(o)d' - to focus on 'them' - the 'evil'. On 9-11, see Hitchcock, What on Earth is Going On? (note 23) pp. 17-22.
165. For a discussion on the above and the subsequent imputation of the Oklahoma City bombing to 'Muslim terrorists', see M. Sparke, 'Outsides Inside Patriotism: The Oklahoma Bombing and the Displacement of Heartland Geopolitics', in G. Ó Tuathail and S. Dalby (eds), Rethinking Geopolitics (London: Routledge 1998) pp. 198-223.
166. J. D. Sidaway, 'Geopolitics, Geography, and 'Terrorism' in the Middle East', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12/3 (1994) p. 360.
167. E. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage 1979) p. 87.
168. For scholarship on this Christian/Muslim division stemming from the Crusades, see S. Bessis, Western Supremacy: Triumph of an Idea? P. Camiller (trans.) (New York: Zed Books 2003) p. 14
169. M. Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War and the Roots of Terror (New York: Pantheon Books 2004) p. 24
170. A. Osiander, 'Religion and Politics in Western Civilization: The Ancient World as Matrix and Mirror of the Modern', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29/3 (2000) pp. 761-790.
171. M. Coleman, 'The Naming of 'Terrorism' and Evil 'Outlaws': Geopolitical Placemaking After 11 September', Geopolitics 8/3 (2003) pp. 91-93.
172. D. Campbell, 'Political Prosaics, Transversal Politics, and the Anarchical World', in M. J. Shapiro and H. Alker (eds), Challenging Boundaries: Global Flow, Territorial Identities (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1996) pp. 21-22.
173. D. Gregory, The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, Iraq (Malden, MA: Blackwell 2004) p. 18.
174. Said (note 107) p. 63 quoted in Gregory (ibid.).
175. I do not claim, however, that there is a 'real' or correct representation of 'Muslims'. I am instead focusing on how geography has been made to see Muslims as 'evil'. The cover epigraph on Charles Dyer's (note 13) major work, for example, reads: 'Inside the mind of the Iraqi dictator: How new satellite images reveal what's really behind this Mideast menace'. See pp. 97-104 for satellite photos. For a popular Orientalist text that claims to 'know the Arab' with consistency, see R. Patai, The Arab Mind, rev. ed. (New York: Hatherleigh Press 2002) pp. 12-24.
176. Hitchcock, The Silver Kingdom (note 23) p. 23.
177. Gregory (note 110) p. 18.
178. Hitchcock, The Coming Islamic Invasion (note 17) pp. 77-78 and 10.
179. Ibid., p. 23.
180. Hitchcock, The Silver Kingdom (note 23) p. 2.
181. Sharp (note 31) p. 362.
182. Scherer (note 33).
183. See also, L. Dubose and J. Reid, The Hammer: Tom Delay, God, Money, and the Rise of the Republican (New York: PublicAffairs 2004) pp. 226-43.
184. Scherer (note 33).
185. J. Lepore, The Name of War: King Phillip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1998) p. X.
186. See W. E. Connolly, 'Suffering, Justice, and the Politics of Becoming', in D. Campbell and M. J. Shapiro (eds), Moral Spaces: Rethinking Ethics and World Politics (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1999) pp. 125-153.
187. M. Beier, 'Beyond Hegemonic State(ments) of Nature', in G. Chowdhry and S. Nair (eds), Power, Postcolonialism and International Relations (London: Routledge 2002) pp. 104.
188. M. Ledwith in What The Bleep Do We Know? [Documentary film] directed by William Arntz (2004).
189. T. B. Strong, 'Language and Nihilism: Nietzsche's Critique of Epistemology', in M. J. Shapiro (ed.), Politics and Language (New York: New York University Press 1984) pp. 239-263.
190. A. Amin, 'Regions Unbound: Towards a New Politics of Place', Geografiska Annaler B/86 (2004) pp. 33-44.
191. For a discussion on spatial connections, 'spatialities of power' and 'fields' of inter-relations, see J. Agnew, 'Mapping Political Power Beyond State Boundaries: Territory, Identity, and Movement in World Politics', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 28/3 (1999) pp. 503-507.