Duboisia myoporoides: The medical career of a native Australian plant

Historical Records of Australian Science

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 31-69

  Foley, Paul ^a  

^a NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33744746932     PISSN: 07273061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1071/HR06001     Document Type: Review

References (377)

1. For the history of alkaloid chemistry: Manfred Hesse, Alkaloids: Nature's Curse or Blessing? (Zürich, 2002);
2. S. Hosztafi, 'The Discovery of Alkaloids', Pharmazie, 52 (1997), 546-550;
3. James Riddick Partington, A History of Chemistry, Volume 4 (London, 1970), pp. 240-246 (good reference list).
4. Mein isolated atropine in 1831, but reported this only in 1833: Mein, 'Über die Darstellung des Atropins in weissen Krystallen', Annalen der Chemie, 6 (1833), 67-72;
5. see also P.L. Geiger and Hesse, 'Darstellung des Atropins', Annalen der Pharmacie, 5 (1833), 43-81,
6. and P.L. Geiger, 'Über einige neue giftige organische Alkalien', Annalen der Chemie, 7 (1833), 269-280.
7. Reviewed in detail in Paul B. Foley, Beans, Roots & Leaves: A History of the Chemical Therapy of Parkinsonism (Marburg, 2003), pp. 42-73.
8. A. Ladenburg, 'Über das Hyoscin', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 13 (1880), 1549-1554.
9. Ernst Schmidt and Hermann Henschke, 'Über die Alkaloide der Wurzel von Scopolia japonica', Archiv der Pharmacie, 226 (1888), 185-203.
10. Ernst Schmidt, 'Über Scopolamin (Hyoscin), Erste Mitteilung', Archiv der Pharmacie, 230 (1892), 207-231.
11. See Louis Merck, 'The Present State of the Hyoscine-Scopolamine Question', Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 16 (1897), 515-516.
12. The United States Pharmacopoeia adopted 'scopolamine' as official in 1916.
13. Alan Cribb, Joan Cribb and John Pearn, 'Pituri, Plants and Physic', in The Bancroft Tradition, ed. John Pearn and Lawrie Powell (Brisbane, 1991), pp. 61-74;
14. Edward Ford, 'The Life and Influence of Joseph Bancroft, M.D.' ,Medical Journal of Australia, I (1961), 153-170.
15. Alan Morehead, in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol. 5, pp. 28-29.
16. W. Johnston, 'Nardoo seed, and "Pitchery", a narcotic plant brought by King, the explorer, from the interior of Australia, where it is used by the natives to produce intoxication', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1 (1863), 1;
17. T. Harvey Johnston and J. Burton Cleland, 'The History of the Aboriginal Narcotic, Pituri', Oceania, 4 (1933/34), 201-223, 268-289.
18. Joseph Bancroft, 'The Pituri Poison' (Brisbane, 1872),
19. reprinted in Joseph Bancroft, Pituri and Duboisia (Brisbane, 1877), pp. 7-10.
20. In 1861, Mueller had named the plant, also collected on the Burke and Wills expedition, Anthocercis hopwoodii;
21. Ferdinand von Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae Vol. II (Melbourne, 1861), p.138
22. and Ferdinand von Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae Vol. X (Melbourne, 1876/77), p. 20;
23. Ferdinand von Mueller, 'Pituri' (letter), Australian Medical Journal, 12 (1877), 60-61.
24. Mueller's experiences with pituri were reported in The Times, London, 7 June 1877, p. 6.
25. A. Petit, 'Sur l'Alcaloïde du Pituri', Journal de pharmacie et de chimie, 29 (1879), 338-341. Petit received his samples directly from Bancroft.
26. C.S. Hicks and H. Le Messurier, 'Preliminary Observations on the Chemistry and Pharmacology of the Alkaloids of Duboisia hopwoodii', Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science, 13 (1935), 175-188;
27. Ernst Späth, Cedric Stanton Hicks and Emil Zajic, 'Über d-Nor-nicotin, ein Alkaloid von Duboisia Hopwoodii F. v. Muell.', Chemische Berichte, 68 (1935), 188-193.
28. For further on pituri: Anonymous, 'Pituri', Lancet, ii (1878), 891-892;
29. J.H. Maiden, 'Some Reputed Medicinal Plants of New South Wales (indigenous species only)', Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Series II, 3 (1888), 355-393;
30. George Aiston, 'The Aboriginal Narcotic Pitched', Oceania, 7 (1937), 372-377;
31. E.M. Watson, 'The Investigation of Some Western Australian Plants of Possible Medicinal Value', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 27 (1946), 610-618.
32. Johnston and Cleland, 'The History of the Aboriginal Narcotic, Pituri' (n. 11);
33. Nicolas Peterson, 'Aboriginal Uses of Australian Solanaceae', in The Biology and Taxonomy of the Solanaceae, ed. John Gregory Hawkes, Richard N. Lester and A.D. Skelding (London, 1979), pp. 171-188;
34. Cliff Goddard and Arpad Kalotas, eds, Punu: Yankunytjatjara Plant Use; Traditional Methods of Preparing Foods, Medicines, Utensils and Weapons from Native Plants (Alice Springs, 1995), pp. 96-99.
35. Bancroft, Pituri and Duboisia (n. 12).
36. Robert Brown, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van-Diemen (London, 1810), p. 448.
37. J.H. Maiden, 'Useful Australian Plants. No. 4 - The Corkwood or Duboisia', Agricultural Gazette, 4 (1893), 845-850. Maiden erroneously recorded the first name of Abbé Dubois as 'Louis'.
38. T.D. Macfarlane, L. Watson, and N.G. Marchant, eds, Western Australian Genera and Families of Flowering Plants. Western Australian Herbarium, Version: August 2002. Available at http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/browse/flora?f=315&level=g&id=1355 (accessed 11 March 2005);
39. Bureau of Flora and Fauna, Canberra, Flora of Australia: Volume 29 (Solanaceae) (Canberra, 1981), p. 17.
40. Franz Wilhelm Sieber, Flora Novae Hollandiae Exsiccata, 259,
41. as noted in Alphonse de Candolle, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, sive Enumeratio Contracta Ordinum, Generum, Specierumque Plantarum..., Pars Decima (Paris, 1846), 191. Noteleae ligustrina Vent. (native olive) is an unrelated Australian plant.
42. Including István László (Stephan) Endlicher, Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita (Vienna, 1836-1840), p. 676;
43. Candolle, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis (n.21).
44. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae, Vol. VI (Melbourne, 1867), p. 142.
45. George Bentham, Flora Australiensis: A Description of the Plants of the Australian Territory, Vol. 4 (London, 1869), pp. 480-481;
46. editorial note to Joseph Bancroft, 'Duboisia Pituri' (letter), Southern Science Record, 2 (1882), 221-222;
47. Ferdinand von Mueller, Systematic Census of Australian Plants (Melbourne, 1882), p. 97.
48. Colin Barnard, 'The Duboisias of Australia', Economic Botany, 6 (1952), 3-17;
49. Bureau of Flora and Fauna, Canberra, Flora of Australia (n. 20), pp. 17-21, 31.
50. L.A. Craven, B.J. Lepschi and L.A.R. Haegi, 'A New Australian Species of Duboisia R.Br. (Solanaceae)', Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 16 (1995), 27.
51. A further putative species, Duboisia campbellii Morrison 1906,
52. is now officially designated Eremophila saligna;
53. see Bureau of Flora and Fauna, Canberra, Flora of Australia (n. 20), p. 21.
54. Duboisia reymondi Karsten (now Pleurothallis reymondii) was an unrelated Venezuelan orchid named for the German physiologist Emil du Bois Reymond (1818-1896): Hermann Karsten, 'Die Duboisia Reymondi', Allgemeine Gartenzeitung, 15 (1847), 394-395.
55. William J. Griffin and G. David Lin, 'Chemo-taxonomy and Geographical Distribution of Tropane Alkaloids', Phytochemistry, 53 (2000), 623-637.
56. Jennifer Isaacs, Bush Food: Aboriginal Food and Herbal Medicine (Sydney, 1987), pp. 66-68.
57. Flora of Australia (n. 20).
58. Mueller, Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae (n. 23) p. 144.
59. Bentham, Flora Australiensis (n. 24), pp. 471-474.
60. For discussion of its classification, see E.M. Holmes, 'Duboisia myoporoides, R.Br.', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 8 (1878), 705-706, 720;
61. de Lanessan, 'Des Caractères Botaniques du Duboisia myoporoïdes', Journal de pharmacie et de chimie, Series IV, 27 (1878), 487-489. The Scrophulariceae were referred to at this time as Scrophularineae, the Solanaceae as Solaneae.
62. Joseph Henry Maiden, The Forest Flora of New South Wales, Volume 7 (Sydney, 1922), pp. 295-302;
63. Evelyn Hurst, Poison Plants of New South Wales (Sydney, 1942), pp. 359-361 and references therein.
64. Maiden, 'Some Reputed Medicinal Plants of New South Wales' (n. 15).
65. See, for example: Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25);
66. Peterson, 'Aboriginal Uses of Australian Solanaceae' (n. 16).
67. H. Kempe, 'Plants Indigenous to the Neighbourhood of Hermannsburg, on the River Finke, in Central Australia', Proceedings of the Royal Society of South Australia, 5 (1881/82), 19-23;
68. Johnston and Cleland, 'The History of the Aboriginal Narcotic, Pituri' (n. 11) (who noted that D. myoporoides was employed as a fish poison in one locality, but otherwise little used);
69. L.J. Webb, 'The Use of Plant Medicines and Poisons by Australian Aborigines', Mankind, 1 (1969), 137-146.
70. E. Dufva, G. Loison and B. Holmstedt, ''Duboisia myoporoides: Native Antidote against Ciguatera Poisoning', Toxicon, 14 (1976), 55-64.
71. R.P. Robins, 'Wood Identification of Spear-throwers in the Queensland Ethnographic Collection: An Evaluation', Occasional Papers in Anthropology (Anthropology Museum, University of Queensland), 10 (1980), 50-62 (I thank Dr Johan Kamminga for supplying me with this information).
72. Paris Exhibition Commissioners, Catalogue of the Natural and Industrial Products of New South Wales exhibited in the Australian Museum by the Paris Exhibition Commissioners. Sydney, November 1854 (Sydney, 1854), p. 24;
73. consulted in the William Macarthur Papers, Vol. XLIV, Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW, A2940.
74. Maiden, 'Useful Australian Plants' (n. 19).
75. William Woolls, A Contribution to the Flora of Australia (Sydney, 1867), pp. 6, 93, 178-179;
76. see, however, Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25).
77. On Woolls, see Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol. 6, pp. 437-438.
78. Bancroft, Pituri and Duboisia (n. 12).
79. Bancroft, in discussion in A.W. Gerrard, 'The Alkaloid and Active Principle of Duboisia myoporoides', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 8 (1878), 787-789, 797-798.
80. Holmes, 'Duboisia myoporoides, R.Br.' (n.31).
81. George Fortescue, 'Physiological Effects of Duboisia on the Eye', Australasian Medical Gazette, 1 (1882), 105.
82. John Tweedy and Sidney Ringer, 'On the Mydriatic Properties of Duboisia myoporoides', Lancet, i (1878), 304-306.
83. Anonymous, 'On the Mydriatic Properties of Duboisia myoporoides, with an Account of its General Physiological Action (Review of Tweedy and Ringer, 1878)', American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 75 (1878), 526-527.
84. Benjamin Moore, 'In memory of Sidney Ringer (1835-1910)', Biochemical Journal, 5 (1910-1911), i-xix.
85. Joseph Bancroft, 'Further Remarks on the Pituri Group of Plants', Transactions of the Queensland Philosophical Society, 3 (1878), 10-11;
86. T.R. Fraser, 'The Pituri Poison of Australia', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 10 (1879), 200-202.
87. Anonymous, 'Edward Morell Holmes 1843-1930', Pharmaceutical Journal and Pharmacist, Series IV, 71 (1930), 284-286.
88. Holmes, 'Duboisia myoporoides, R.Br.' (n.31).
89. J. Moeller, 'Amerikanische Drogen. 16. Folia Duboisiae myoporoidis', Pharmaceutische Centralhalle, 24 (1883), 227-234.
90. See Norman Hall, Botanists of the Eucalypts (Melbourne, 1978), p. 122.
91. Bancroft, Duboisia and Pituri (n. 12).
92. Bancroft, 'Further Remarks on the Pituri Group of Plants' (n. 48);
93. Bancroft, '"Duboisia Pituri'" (n. 24).
94. Gerrard, 'The Alkaloid and Active Principle of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 42);
95. similar sentiments expressed in: Anonymous, 'Duboisia myoporoides', Lancet, i (1878), 593.
96. Discussion in Gerrard, 'The Alkaloid and Active Principle of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 42).
97. Anonymous, 'Duboisia Alkaloid and its Physiological Action', Australian Medical Gazette, 1 (1882), 128.
98. For example, Anonymous (Finselbach?), 'The Utilization of Native Products. I. Duboisine and its Use in the Colonies', Pharmaceutical Journal of Australasia, 4 (1891), 121, which also employs the variant (?) spellings 'hyoxyamine' and 'hyoxine'.
99. [A. Petit] (abstract without title), Journal de pharmacie et de chimie, 27 (1878), 383;
100. [A. Gubler], 'Quelques Propriétés Thérapeutiques de la Duboisine', Journal de Thérapeutique, 5 (1878), 351-352;
101. Holmes in discussion in Gerrard, 'The Alkaloid and Active Principle of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 42).
102. Holmes, present at Gerrard's presentation, had received notification from Petit on the morning of 3 April. For more detail of method, see Petit in L. von Wecker, ' Über den vergleichenden Gebrauch des Eserins, Atropins und Duboisins', Monatsblätter für die Augenheilkunde, 12 (1878), 216-230;
103. F.C.E, van Emden, 'Bereiding van Sulphas Duboisini', Nieuw Tijdschrift voor de Pharmacie in der Nederlande, 12 (1879), 33-37.
104. Bancroft, ' "Duboisia Pituri" ' (n. 24).
105. F. von Mueller and L. Rummel, 'Note on Two New Vegeto-alkaloids', Journal of the Chemical Society, 35 (1879), 31-32.
106. F. von Mueller and L. Rummel, 'Über Duboisin und Duboisinsäure', Zeitschrift der allgemeinen österreichischen Apotheker-Vereines, 18 (1880), 20-21.
107. See, for example, S. Ringer and W. Murrell, 'On Pituri', Journal of Physiology, 1 (1878), 377-383.
108. For example, B.V Dupuy, Alcaloïdes: Histoire, Propriétés Chimiques et Physiques, Extraction, Action Physiologique, Effets Thérapeutiques, Toxicologie Observations, usages en médecine, etc. (Paris, 1889), p. 573;
109. E. Mendel, 'Über Duboisin', Neurologisches Centralblatt, 12 (1893), 89-93.
110. Duquesnel, 'Duboïsine', Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 3 (1881), 39.
111. Duboisine was not mentioned in his subsequent report on the purification of hyoscyamine: H. Duquesnel, 'Crystalline Hyoscyamine', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 12 (1882), 766.
112. A.W. Gerrard, 'Crystallized Duboisine', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 11 (1880), 383.
113. Louis Fauqué, De la Duboisine (Thèse de Paris, 1879).
114. Sidney Ringer and William Murrell, 'Physiological Action of Duboisia myoporoides', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 8 (1878), 788;
115. Sidney Ringer, 'On the Relative Action of Duboisia and Atropia', Practitioner, 24 (1879), 247-249;
116. S.D. Risley, 'On the Relative Value of the Sulphates of Atropia and of Duboisia in Ophthalmic Praxis', American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 79 (1880), 410-422;
117. discussion in Gerrard, 'The Alkaloid and Active Principle of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 42);
118. William F. Norris, 'Duboisia as a Mydriatic, with Remarks on its Physiological and Toxic Effects', American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 77 (1879), 446-454;
119. George A. Gibson, 'The Action of Duboisia on the Circulation', Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 17 (1881), 10-26;
120. further references in E. Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide (Fortsetzung)', Mercks Jahresbericht, 30 (1916), 1-176 (duboisine: 3-13).
121. G. Pabst, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen in naturgetreuen Abbildungen mit kurz erläuterndem Texte. III. (Ergänzungs-)Band (Gera-Untermhaus, 1896), nr 26.
122. Studies cited by Anonymous, 'Duboisia and its Therapeutic Effects' Practitioner, 25 (1880), 294-295;
123. Mendel, 'Über Duboisin' (n. 64);
124. Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide' (n. 68).
125. A. Ladenburg, 'Note on Duboisine', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 10 (1880), 789-790;
126. A. Ladenburg, 'Über das Duboisin', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 13 (1880), 257-258;
127. A. Ladenburg 'Die Alkaloide aus Belladonna, Datura, Hyoscyamus und Duboisia', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 13 (1880), 909-911.
128. Ladenburg, 'Über das Hyoscin' (n. 4).
129. E. Harnack, 'Duboisin', Chemiker-Zeitung, 11 (1887), 52.
130. A. Ladenburg and F. Petersen, 'Über das Duboisin', Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 20 (1887), 1661.
131. Anonymous, 'Duboisine; Scopolia atropoides; Crystallised Hyoscine', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 20 (1890), 709.
132. G. Sharp, 'Our Present Knowledge of the Mydriatic Group', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series IV, 5 (1897), 160-162.
133. E. Merck, 'Über das Pseudohyoscyamin, ein neues Alkaloid aus Duboisia myoporoïdes', Archiv der Pharmacie, 231 (1893), 117-123.
134. See S. Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum', Therapeutische Monatshefte, 7 (1893), 410-415;
135. Rabow credited Carl Julius Bender with the discovery of this phenomenon (cf. Carl Julius Bender, 'Über den Alkaloidgehalt von Duboisia myoporoides und die Darstellung des Duboisins', Pharmaceutische Centralhalle, 26 [1885], 38-39).
136. See also J. Lauterer, 'Chemical and Physiological Notes on Native and Acclimatised Mydriatic Plants of Queensland', Australasian Medical Gazette, 14 (1895), 457-460.
137. Hermann Thoms, ed., Handbuch der praktischen und wissenschaftlichen Pharmazie. VI. Arzneimittel (Berlin, 1927-1929), p. 1956.
138. Georg Frerichs, Georg Arends and Heinrich Zörnig, eds, Hagers Handbuch der pharmazeutischen Praxis für Apotheker, Arzte, Drogisten und Medizinalbeamte, Vol. 1 (Berlin, 1925), pp. 1188-1189.
139. G. Barger, W.E Martin and W. Mitchell, 'The Minor Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides', Journal of the Chemical Society (1937), 1820-1823.
140. W. Mitchell, 'Some New Solanaceous Alkaloids fromDuboisia myoporoides', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 21 (1940), 307-308.
141. C. Barnard and H. Finnemore, 'Drug Plant Investigations. 1. Progress Report', Journal of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 18 (1945), 277-285;
142. Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25).
143. K. Loftus Hills, W. Bottomley and P.I. Mortimer, 'Variation in the Main Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides and Duboisia leichhardtii. II. Duboisia myoporoides', Australian Journal of Applied Science, 5 (1954), 258-275.
144. P.I. Mortimer, 'A Note on Duboisia myoporoides from the Acacia Plateau, near Killarney, Queensland', Australian Journal of Science, 20 (1957), 87-88.
145. K. Loftus Hills, W. Bottomley and P.I. Mortimer, 'Occurrence of Nicotine Together with Hyoscine in Duboisia myoporoides R Br.', Nature 171 (1953), 435;
146. see also Jacques Barrau, 'Le Duboisia myoporoides R. Br., Plan te Médicinale de la Nouvelle Calédonie', Journal d'agriculture tropicale et de botanique appliquée 4 (1957), 453-457;
147. Louis Cosson, Jean-Charles Vaillant and Etiennette Dequeant, 'Les Alcaloïdes Tropaniques des Feuilles du Duboisia myoporoides Néocalé donien', Phytochemistry, 15 (1976), 818-820.
148. W.A. Dixon, 'On the Chemistry of Australian Plants', Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 17 (1883), 191-208;
149. Moeller, 'Amerikanische Drogen' (n. 51).
150. See, for example, comment in Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78).
151. A.W. Gerrard, 'Preliminary Examination of Pituri or Pitchere', Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Series III, 9 (1878), 251-252.
152. C. Wehmer, Die Pflanzenstoffe, botanischsystematisch bearbeitet (Jena, 1911), p. 695.
153. The medical botanist Duke still listed 'pituri' and 'corkwood' as synonyms for D. myoporoides in his 2002 handbook: James A. Duke, Handbook of Medicinal Herbs, 2nd edition (Boca Raton, 2002), p. 223.
154. Equally confusingly, Peter Latz lists D. myoporoides as the former designation of A hopwoodii in Bush-fires and Bushtucker: Aboriginal Plant Use in Central Australia (Alice Springs, 1995), p. 163.
155. Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78);
156. Pabst, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen III (n. 69).
157. Dorvault, L'officine, ou Répertoire de Pharmacie Pratique (Paris, 1886), pp. 436-437;
158. Deutsche Apotheker-Verein, Arzneimittel, welche in dem Arzneibuch für das Deutsche Reich nicht enthalten sind (Berlin, 1897), p. 84.
159. Wecker, 'Über den vergleichenden Gebrauch' (n. 59).
160. Galezowski, 'Action Mydriatique de la Duboisine comparée à celle de l'Atropine; Accidents Inhérents à l'Emploi de l'un et de l'autre de ces deux Agents', La Lancette française, gazette des hôpitaux civils et militaires, 51 (1878), 1082-1083.
161. Soelberg Wells, 'Spasm of the Ciliary Muscle Treated by Duboisin', Lancet, i (1879), 223-225.
162. Cited in: Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide' (n. 68).
163. Wecker, 'Über den vergleichenden Gebrauch' (n. 59);
164. H. Romiée, 'Atropine, Duboisine, Gelsemine', Annales de la Société médicale-chirurgicale de Liège, 18 (1879), 258-262;
165. H.M. Jones, 'The Use of Duboisine, Gelsemine, Eserine etc., in Ophthalmic Practice', British Medical Journal, 2 (1879), 362-364;
166. Hermann Schäfer, 'Comparative Investigations into the Effects upon the Eye of Atropine, Duboisine, and Homatropine', Archives of Ophthalmology, 10 (1881), 196-213.
167. For further early reports, see references in W. Martindale and W.W. Westcott, The Extra Pharmacopoeia (London, 1901).
168. [Boucheron], 'Nearsightedness' (abstract), Science, 14 (1889), 147;
169. Dupuy, Alcaloïdes (n. 64), pp. 576-577.
170. Nettleship, 'Cases of Toxic Symptoms from the Use of Duboisin Drops', Lancet, i (1879), 352-353;
171. Jones, 'The Use of Duboisine' (n. 97).
172. [Berner], 'Poisoning by Duboisin' (abstract of paper in Nordinskt. Medicinskt Arkiv, [1880], 12),
173. American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 81, (1881), 586.
174. John Tweedy, ' Toxic Symptoms from the Use of Duboisin Drops' (letter), Lancet, i (1879), 441.
175. Veasey, 'Duboisine Intolerance' (abstract of article in Revue de Thérapeutique, 63, 379),
176. Pharmaceutical Journal, 27 (1897), 215.
177. For example, Jones, 'The Use of Duboisine' (n. 97).
178. Mueller and Rummel, 'Note on Two New Vegeto-alkaloids' (n. 61);
179. Ringer and Murrell, 'Physiological Action of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 68).
180. Fauqué, De la Duboisine (n. 67), p. 67.
181. [Mabille and Lallemant] (abstract of article in Le Progrès médicale), Therapeutische Monatshefte, 6 (1892), 549.
182. Dupuy, Alcaloïdes (n. 64), p. 577.
183. Nicolaus Ostermayer, 'Über die sedative und hypnotische Wirkung des Atropin und Duboisin', Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie und psychisch-gerichtlichen Medizin, 47 (1890), 287-307.
184. M. Lewald, 'Über die Anwendung von Duboisinum sulfuricum bei Geisteskranken', Neurologisches Centralblatt, 10 (1891), 585-589;
185. E. Belmondo, 'Sull'Azione Sedativa ed Ipnotica della Duboisina nelle Malattia Mentali', Rivista di Freniatria e Medicina Legale, 18 (1892), 154-156;
186. Gubler, 'Sur l'Action Thérapeutique et Physiologique du Duboisia et de la Duboisine', Bulletin de thérapeutique, 94 (1892), 426-427;
187. Vladimir Preininger, 'Duboisinum als Sedativum und Hypnoticum bei Geisteskranken', Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie und psychischgerichtlichen Medizin, 47 (1892), 134-145;
188. Georges Grandferry, De la Duboisine: Son Action Physiologique, Son Emploi en Neuropathologie et en Psychiatrie (Thèse de Paris, 1894) and references therein;
189. L.W. Weber, 'Die Behandlung der psychischen Erregungszustände', Therapeutische Monatshefte, 22 (1906), 57-62.
190. P. Näcke, 'Duboisinum sulfuricum bei geisteskranken Frauen', Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie und psychischgerichtlichen Medizin, 47 (1892), 566-579.
191. See also references in P. Squire and R.P.W. Squire, Companion to the Latest Edition of the British Pharmacopoeia, 17th edition (London, 1899);
192. Martindale and Westcott, The Extra Pharmacopoeia (n. 97).
193. G. Gellhorn, 'Duboisinum sulfuricum als Sedativum und Hypnoticum', Deutsche Medicinische Wochenschrift, 17 (1891), 932-933, 1161.
194. Maiden, 'Useful Australian Plants' (n. 19).
195. For Maiden, see Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol. 10, pp. 381-383;
196. Lionel Gilbert, The Little Giant: The Life & Work of Joseph Henry Maiden, 1859-1925 (Armidale, 2001).
197. Chmelevski, 'Zur Anwendung des Duboisin und Scopolamin bei Geisteskranken' (Referat), Neurologisches Centralblatt, 14 (1895), 574;
198. references in Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78).
199. Harvey Wickes Felter and John Uri Lloyd, Kings American Dispensatory, 18th edition (Cincinnati, 1898), pp. 665-667.
200. Finley Ellingwood, American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacognosy, 11th edition (Cincinnati, 1919), pp. 186-187.
201. See, for example, Dupuy, Alcaloïdes (n. 64), p. 579.
202. Gubler, 'Sur l'Action Thérapeutique et Physiologique du Duboisia' (n. 109);
203. Dupuy, Alcaloïdes (n. 64), pp. 579-580;
204. Mazzochi and Antonini, 'Le Sulfate Neutre de Duboisine chez les Aliénés', Riforma medica, 4 (1892), 435-436;
205. Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide' (n. 68).
206. Mendel, 'Über Duboisin' (n. 64).
207. For example, see X. Francotte, 'Du Sulfate de Duboisine dans le Traitement de la Paralysie Agitante' (abstract), Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 16 (1897), 1423.
208. For example, O. Lampl, 'Weitere Beiträge zur symptomatischen Therapie der chronischen Encephalitis', Medizinische Klinik, 25 (1929), 1353-1357.
209. G. Panegrossi, 'Über die neue Heilmethode der chronischen epidemischen Encephalitis mit Parkinson-Erscheinungen', Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 64 (1938), 669-670.
210. Dupuy, Alcaloïdes (n. 64), pp. 576-579;
211. Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78);
212. Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide' (n. 68).
213. C. Scriba, 'Meine Tätigkeit in der chemischen Fabrik von E. Merck 1. Juni 1881 bis 31. Dezember 1923', Merck-Archiv, Darmstadt; F6/8(t) (c.1925). Other authors, however, note that the sulphate was being prepared at least a year earlier:
214. see, for example, H. Dimitriu, Die wissenschaftliche Entwicklung der Alkaloid-Chemie am Beispiel der Firma Merck in den Jahren 1886-1920 (Thesis, Heidelberg, 1993), p. 79.
215. Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78);
216. see also H. Beckurts, 'Daturin und Duboisin', Apotheker-Zeitung, 27 (1912), 683-684.
217. Merck, 'Nicht offizinelle Alkaloide' (n. 68).
218. C. Scriba, Jahrbuch der Fabrik Ib, 1912, Merck-Archiv, Darmstadt; F3/49 (1912).
219. Including: Maiden, Forest Flora of New South Wales (n. 32).
220. Francis Howard Carr and William Colebrook Reynolds, 'Nor-hyoscyamine and Nor-atropine Alkaloids Occurring in Various Solana ceous Plants', Journal of the Chemical Society, 101 (1912), 946-958.
221. James M. Petrie, 'The Chemical Investigation of Some Poisonous Plants in the Natural Order Solanaceae. IV The Chemistry of the Duboisias; V. The Alkaloids of Duboisia leichhardtii F.v.M.', Proceedings of the LinneanSociety of NSW, 42 (1917), 118-135, 137-145.
222. Figures from annual factory record books in Merck-Archiv, Darmstadt, section F3.
223. Gehe & Co. trade report for April-August 1891, p. 49.
224. Gehe & Co. trade report for April-August 1891, Ibid., pp. 30-31.
225. Maiden, 'Useful Australian Plants' (n. 19).
226. Anonymous, 'The Utilization of Native Products' (n. 58).
227. Petrie, 'The Chemical Investigation of Some Poisonous Plants' (n. 129).
228. Näcke, 'Duboisinum sulfuricum bei geisteskranken Frauen' (n. 110);
229. Rabow, 'Über Duboisinum sulfuricum' (n. 78).
230. 4 20-25¢ (1 g); hyoscine crystal or HBr/HI/HCl 32-60¢ (1 g); scopolamine HBr 13-15¢ (1 g). My thanks to Maggie Heran, Director of the Lloyd Library and Museum (Ohio, USA) for supplying me with these figures.
231. Mendel, 'ÜberDuboisin' (n. 64).
232. British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1911, p. 373.
233. Penfold was a leading figure in Australian phytochemistry for three decades, discovering, for instance, the antiseptic qualities of tea tree oil: H.H.G. McKern in Geoffey Serie, ed., Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol. 11, pp. 195-196.
234. A.R. Penfold, 'Presidential Address. Part III. The Present Position of the Forest Products of Australia: Alkaloids', Journal of the Royal Society of N.S.W, 70 (1936), 37-38.
235. They were no longer mentioned, for example, amongst the mydriatics in the 1938 edition of Sanford R. Gifford's A Textbook of Ophthalmology (Philadelphia), p. 143.
236. http://www.biam2.org/www/Spe9179.html (accessed 15 December 2003). Copy of no longer accessible webpage retained by author.
237. Duke, Handbook of Medicinal Herbs (n. 90), p. 223.
238. Steinbüchel, 'Vorläufige Mittheilung über die Anwendung von Skopolamin-Morphium-Injektionen in der Geburtshilfe', Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 27 (1902), 1304-1306.
239. National Archives of Australia, Canberra (hereafter NAA): A9778 B30/2/49 ('Summary of Drug Plant Production Being Undertaken by the Council for Scientific & Industrial Research, Australia', 2 January 1941).
240. H. Finnemore, 'Duboisia myoporoides as a Possible Substitute for Belladonna &c.', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 54 (1939), 1037.
241. NAA: A9778, B30/2/41 (letters from A.E.V. Richardson, Deputy Chief Executive Officer, CSIR, to H. Finnemore [7 June 1940] and R.D. Wright [10 June 1940]);
242. A9778, B30/2/48A (CSIR Meeting of Council, Canberra, November 1941, agenda item 5[iv]).
243. CSIRO Archives, Dickson (ACT) (hereafter CSIRO-A) BB21/2/4 (H. Finnemore, 'Medicinal Plants: The Problem of the Solanaceous (Mydriatic) Drugs in Australia').
244. NAA: A9778, B30/2/51A (memorandum from Dickson to Gerald Lightfoot, Secretary, CSIR, 15 October 1942).
245. NAA: A9778, B30/2/48D (Medicinal Drug Plant Investigations Interim Report 1940/Progress Report 1941);
246. CSIRO-A: BB21/2/4 (letter from B.T. Dickson, Chief of Division of Plant Industry, CSIR, to Richardson, 12 August 1941).
247. NAA: A9778, B30/2/41 (The Extraction and Analysis of Australian Vegetable Drugs: Progress Report on Work Done in the Department of Pharmacy, University of Sydney; 26 September 1941).
248. CSIRO-A: BB21/2/4 (letter from Dickson to Finnemore, 12 August 1941; letter from Dickson to Richardson [n. 151]; letter from Richardson to Colonel Sir Alan Newton, Chairman of the Medical Equipment Control Committee, 14 August 1941; and related correspondence).
249. NAA: A9778, B30/2/41 (n. 152).
250. CSIRO-A: BB21/2/4 (letters from Dickson to Finnemore and to Richardson, letter from Richardson to Newton, and related correspondence) (n. 151 and 153).
251. NAA: A9778, B30/2/50B (letter dated 12 April 1943).
252. CSIRO-A: BB21/2/4 (CSIR Division of Plant Industry, 'Report on drug plants for the season 1942-43', March 1943).
253. E.I. Rosenblum, 'Developments in Drug Manufacture in Australia. Research and Production by Felton, Grimwade and Duerdins Pty. Ltd., Melbourne', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 26 (1945), 89-91;
254. John F. T. Grimwade, A Short History of Drug Houses of Australia Ltd to 1968 (Mount Eliza, Vic., 1974).
255. NAA: A9778, B30/2/48D (n. 151).
256. Russell Grimwade, 'Duboisia - Australia's Own Drug Plant', Walkabout, 1 June 1954, 29-32.
257. K. Loftus Hills, 'Duboisia in Australia: A New Source of Hyoscine and Hyoscyamine', Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, 49 (1948), 185-188.
258. Rosenblum, 'Developments in Drug Manufacture in Australia' (n. 158).
259. Grimwade, 'Duboisia - Australia's Own Drug Plant' (n. 160).
260. NAA: A2910/1, 416/10/5 Part 1 (Hyoscine Hydro-Brom [bromine] & Atropine Sulphate 1941-1952);
261. Rosenblum, 'Developments in Drug Manufacture in Australia' (n. 158).
262. Rosenblum, 'Developments in Drug Manufacture in Australia'(n. 158).
263. NAA: A5799/15, 157/1944 (Services' Priority Lists - Production of Atropin and Hyoscine 1944).
264. Geoffrey Blainey, 'The Early Australian Pharmacists', Australian Journal of Pharmacy (1977), 416-417.
265. John Riddoch Poynter, Russell Grimwade (Melbourne, 1967), p. 247.
266. Office of Naval History, Navy Department, Washington, DC, Glossary of US Naval Code Words. NAVEXOS P-474, 2nd edition (Washington, 1948). Available at http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/NAVEXOS_P-474H.htm (accessed 11 March 2005).
267. Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25).
268. NAA:A5799/15, 157/1944 (n. 166).
269. Grimwade, 'Duboisia - Australia's Own Drug Plant' (n. 160).
270. Anonymous, 'The Development of Drug Manufacture in Australia: A Remarkable Wartime Achievement', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 23 (1942), 765-766.
271. Lauterer, 'Chemical and Physiological Notes' (n. 78).
272. Petrie, 'The Chemical Investigation of Some Poisonous Plants. V' (n. 129).
273. J.A. Lean and C.S. Ralph, 'The Production of Hyoscyamine from Duboisia Species. Part I. Methods of Quantitative Estimation', Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 77 (1944), 96-98;
274. C.S. Ralph and J.L. Willis, 'The Production of Hyoscyamine from Duboisia Species. Part II. Extraction of the Base', Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 77 (1944), 99-105;
275. W. Mitchell, 'The Alkaloids of Duboisia leichhardtii', Journal of the Chemical Society (1944), 480-481.
276. K. Loftus Hills, W. Bottomley and P.I. Mortimer, 'Variation in the Main Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides and Duboisia leichhardtii. III. Duboisia leichhardtii', Australian Journal of Applied Science, 5 (1954), 276-282.
277. Poynter, Russell Grimwade (n. 168), p. 247.
278. Division of Plant Industry, 'Report on drug plants for the season 1942-43' (n. 157);
279. K. Loftus Hills and G.P. Kelenyi, 'A Preliminary Report on the Cultivation of Duboisia Species', Journal of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 19 (1946), 359-375;
280. H.M. Groszmann, G.P. Kelenyi and C.N. Rodwell, 'Hybrids Between Duboisia myoporoides and D. leichhardtii', Queensland Journal of Agricultural Science, 6 (1949), 1-8.
281. See E. Coleman, 'Herb Growing in a National Emergency: Herbs of Power', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 23 (1941), 140-142.
282. Barnard and Finnemore, 'Drug Plant Investigations' (n. 83);
283. K.L. Hills, E.M. Trautner and C.N. Rodwell, 'A Preliminary Report upon Variation in the Nature and Quantity of the Main Alkaloids in Duboisia myoporoides and Duboisia leichhardtii', Journal of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 18 (1945), 234-253;
284. Hills and Kelenyi, 'A Preliminary Report on the Cultivation of Duboisia Species' (n. 179);
285. Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25).
286. See also Annual Reports of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 15 (1940/41) to 21 (1947/48) and Annual Reports of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, 1 (1948/49) to 4 (1951/52).
287. Anonymous, 'Duboisia: A New Economic Plant', Rural Research in CSIRO, March (1953), 22-24.
288. NAA: A9778, B30/2/48A (n. 148);
289. Rosenblum, 'Developments in Drug Manufacture in Australia' (n. 158);
290. Poynter, Russell Grimwade (n. 168);
291. Geoff Miller, 'Outpost Pharmacy', in 'Outpost Medicine ': Australasian Studies on the History of Medicine, eds Susanne Atkins, Kenneth Kirkby, Philip Thomson and John Pearn (Hobart, 1994), pp. 21-34;
292. Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, 'Poppies'. Available at http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/Web-Pages/EGIL-5HU8V4?open (accessed 11 March 2005).
293. D.J. Collins, C.C.J. Culvenor, J.A. Lamberton, J.W. Loder and J.R. Price, Plants for Medicines: A Chemical and Pharmacological Survey of Plants in the Australian Region (Melbourne, 1990);
294. J.R. Price, J.A. Lamberton and C.C.J. Culvenor, 'The Australian Phytochemical Survey: Historical Aspects of the CSIRO Search for New Drugs in Australian Plants', Historical Records of Australian Science, 9 (1993), 335-356.
295. NAA: A9778, B30/2/50G (letter from Dickson to Richardson, dated 1941).
296. E.I. Rosenblum, 'Drug Manufacture in Australia: Prospects and Possibilities', Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, 27 (1946), 87-88.
297. Anonymous, 'Duboisia: A New Economic Plant' (n. 182).
298. NAA: A9778, B30/2/74B (Department of Plant Industry, CSIR: Medicinal Plants, Projects for Investigations).
299. NAA: A9778, B30/2/41 (letter from R. Douglas Wright to the Prime Minister, 7 September 1945, and related correspondence in same file).
300. Exceptions had been granted, such as that to export a ton of D. leichhardtii to a United States firm in January 1945: NAA: A1539/1, 1945/W/299 (Export Restrictions on Duboisia - Customs Proc. 560, 1945).
301. Herbert A. Berens, 'A Survey of Duboisias: Based on a Trip Through the Duboisia Areas', Chemist and Druggist (1953), 593-597.
302. Poynter, Russell Grimwade (n. 168), p. 246.
303. See especially: K. Loftus Hills, W. Bottomley and P.I. Mortimer, 'Variation in the Main Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides and Duboisia leichhardtii. I, Chemical Methods; II, Duboisia myoporoides; III, Duboisia leichhardtii; IV, Interspecific Hybrids; V, Seasonal Changes and Some Environmental Factors', Australian Journal of Applied Science, 5 (1954), 255-297.
304. E.M. Trautner, 'Alkaloid Formation in Duboisia myoporoides and D. leichhardtii', Australian Chemical Institute Journal and Proceedings, 14 (1947), 411-431.
305. K. Loftus Hills, E.M. Trautner and C.N. Rodwell, 'A Tobacco-Duboisia Graft', Australian Journal of Science, 9 (1946), 24-25.
306. CSIRO-A: BB21/2/4 (letter from K. Loftus Hills to Sir Ian Clunies Ross, 29 November 1954; letter from R.F. Dawson to Loftus Hills, 20 November 1954).
307. Both letters in NAA: A9778/1, B30/2/13 (CSIRO: Duboisia (leichhardtii). 1. Extraction of Hyoscine and Hyoscyamine).
308. Grimwade, 'Duboisia - Australia's Own Drug Plant' (n. 160).
309. Poynter, Russell Grimwade (n. 168), p. 251.
310. Barnard, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 25).
311. See correspondence in NAA: A2910/1, 416/10/5 Part 1 (n. 164).
312. NAA: A2910/1, 416/10/5 Part 2 (Hyoscine Hydro-Brom [bromine] & Atropine Sulphate 1952-1954), including translation of letter from the German Minister for Economics, 21 April 1952.
313. Foley, Beans, Roots & Leaves (n. 3), pp. 217-251;
314. Paul B. Foley, 'Beans, roots & leaves: a brief history of the pharmacological therapy of parkinsonism', Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen, 22 (2003), 215-234.
315. http://www.buscopan.com/com/Main/buscopan/buscopan.jsp (accessed 11 March 2005); includes link to detailed segment on Duboisia.
316. D. Palevitch, 'Agronomy Applied to Medicinal Plant Conservation', in The Conservation of Medicinal Plants, eds Olayiwola Akerele, Vernon Heywood and Hugh Synge (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 167-178.
317. Poynter, Russell Grimwade (n. 168), p. 247.
318. Wulf Ohlendorf, 'Domestication and Crop Development of Duboisia spp. (Solanaceae)', in Domestication and Commercialization of Non-Timber Forest Products in Agroforestry Systems (Rome, 1996). Available at http://www.fao.org/documents/show_ cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/w3735e/w3735e23. htm (accessed 11 March 2005);
319. Qazi Mohammed Abdur Razzaque, 'Studies on the Biology and Ecology of the Duboisia Flea Beetle Psylliodes Paralis Weise (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera) in Duboisia Plantations' (thesis abstract), Australian Journal of Entomology 41 (2002), 281-282.
320. John Pearn, 'Corked Up: Clinical Hyoscine Poisoning with Alkaloids of the Native Corkwood, Duboisia', Medical Journal of Australia, 2 (1981), 422-423;
321. Ian Wood, Peter Chudleigh and Katrina Bond, eds, Developing New Agricultural Industries: Lessons from the Past (Kingston, ACT, 1994), vol.2, pp. 80-85;
322. Ohlendorf, 'Domestication and Crop Development of Duboisia spp.' (n. 207).
323. A.R. Carr, 'Duboisia Growing', Queensland Agricultural Journal, 100 (1974), 495-505;
324. William J. Griffin, 'Duboisias of Australia', Pharmacy International, 6 (1985), 305-308;
325. R.J. Smith, 'Alkaloids from Native Flora: Commercial Production, Old and New', Chemistry in Australia, 56 (1989), 350-352;
326. Julie Lake, 'Medicinal Tree Crops Have Export Potential', Australian Horticulture, July (1990), 30-34.
327. J.F. Coulson and W.J. Griffin, 'The Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides. I. Aerial Parts', Planta Medica, 15 (1967), 459-466;
328. J.F. Coulsen [sic] and W.J. Griffin, 'The Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides. II. Roots', Planta Medica, 16 (1968), 174-181.
329. O. Luanratana and W.J. Griffin, 'Cultivation of a Duboisia Hybrid. Part A. Nutritional Requirements and Effects of Growth Regulators on Alkaloid Content. Part B. Alkaloid Variation in a Commercial Plantation: Effects of Seasonal Change, Soil Fertility and Cytokinins', Journal of Natural Products, 43 (1980), 546-558;
330. O. Luanratana and W.J. Griffin, 'The Effect of a Seaweed Extract on the Alkaloid Variation in a Commercial Plantation of a Duboisia Hybrid', Journal of Natural Products 45 (1982), 270-271.
331. N. Cougoul, E. Miginiac and L. Cosson, 'Un Gradient Métabolique: Rapport Scopolamine/Hyoscyamine dans les Feuilles du Duboisia myoporoides en Fonction de leur Niveau d'Insertion et du Stade de Croissance', Phytochemistry 18 (1979), 949-951;
332. Toshihiko Ikenaga, Sachiko Takemoto and Hiromu Ohashi, 'Relationship Between the Content of Tropane Alkaloids in the Five Top Leaves of Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. and in the Whole-Plant Leaves', Nettai Nogyo, 29 (1985), 31-32.
333. Jau Ying Lee and Tai Hui Chiu, 'The variation of total alkaloids, scopolamine and hyoscyamine in Duboisia myoporoides R. Br.', Zhonghua Yaoxue Zazhi, 40 (1988), 101-110.
334. For example: W.J. Griffin, H.P. Brand and J.G. Dare, 'Analysis of Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. and Duboisia leichhardtii F. Muell.', Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 64 (1975), 1821-1825;
335. Griffin, 'Duboisias of Australia' (n. 209);
336. W. Gritsanapan and W.J. Griffin, 'Alkaloid Variation within Duboisia myoporoides', Phytochemistry, 30 (1991), 2667-2669;
337. G.D. Lin and W.J. Griffin, 'Biotechnology of Duboisia Alkaloids', Australasian Biotechnology, 2 (1992), 23-26;
338. Griffin and Lin, 'Chemotaxonomy and Geographical Distribution of Tropane Alkaloids' (n. 27).
339. Toshihiko Ikenaga (Faculty of Environmental Studies) and Yoshie Kitamura (Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences), amongst others, have published extensively on various aspects of D. myoporoides: see review by T. Muranaka, Y. Kitamura and T. Ikenaga, 'Genetic Transformation of Duboisia Species', Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, 45 (Transgenic Medicinal Plants) (1999), 117-132.
340. Yukio Miyazaki, Joju Haginiwa, Masatoshi Harada and Hiroshi Watanabe, 'Development of Medicinal Resources. I. Information on Duboisia myoporoides Cultivated in Japan', Yakugaku Zasshi, 83 (1963), 597-601.
341. O.P. Virmani, Ashok Sharma and Anup Kumar, 'Cultivation of Duboisia as a Commercial Source of Hyoscine and Hyoscyamine A Review', Current Research in Medical and Aromatic Plants, 4 (1982), 47-56;
342. Y.N. Shukla, Samresh Dwivedi, A.K. Kukreja and S.P.S. Khanuja, 'Present Status of Research in Australian Cork Wood Tree Duboisia myoporoides and its Related Species', Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 25 (2003), 118-133.
343. A. Askari, S. I. Ahmed and N. Anwar, 'Studies on Seed Germination and Introduction of Duboisia myoporoides R.Br.', Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 32 (1989), 681-683.
344. Recent research reviews: Lin and Griffin, 'Biotechnology of Duboisia Alkaloids' (n. 214);
345. Wandee Gritsanapan, 'Duboisia: a major source of hyoscine', Warasan Phesatchasat, 22 (1995), 178-190;
346. O. Luanratana, 'Micropropagation of Duboisia Species', Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, 40 (High-Tech and Micropropagation VI) (1997), 313-331;
347. M.G.P. Mahagamasekera and P.M. Doran, 'Intergeneric Co-Culture of Genetically Transformed Organs for the Production of Scopolamine', Phytochemistry, 47 (1997), 17-25;
348. Muranaka, Kitamura and Ikenaga, 'Genetic Transformation of Duboisia Species' (n. 215);
349. Shukla, Dwivedi, Kukreja and Khanuja, 'Present Status of Research in Australian Cork Wood Tree' (n. 217).
350. P. Bachmann, L. Witte and F.-C. Czygan, 'Über das Alkaloidspektrum der floralen und postfloralen Teile von Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. (Solanaceae)' (abstract), Archiv der Pharmazie, 321 (1988), 690.
351. Toshihiko Ikenaga, Shozo Kino, Itsuko Zensho and Hiromu Ohashi, 'Studies on the Production of Duboisia in Japan. VII. Comparison of the Cultivation of Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. in Okinawa and Nagasaki', Nettai Nogyo, 21 (1978), 86-92;
352. A. Singh, D.V. Singh, M. Ramachandra Rao, Y.N. Shukla and A. Husain, 'Cultivation of Duboisia myoporoides R. Brown as Source of Tropane Alkaloids in India', Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 47 (1985), 120-121.
353. E.M. Trautner and O.E. Neufeld, 'The Occurrence of Ursolic Acid in the Leaves of Duboisia spp.', Australian Chemical Industry Journal and Proceedings, 14 (1947), 17-22;
354. Yogendra N. Shukla and Raghunath S. Thakur, 'Aliphatic Constituents from Duboisia myoporoides', Phytochemistry, 23 (1984), 799-801;
355. Y.N. Shukla, A. Rani, A.K. Tripathi and S. Sharma, 'Antifeedant Activity of Ursolic Acid Isolated from Duboisia myoporoides', Phytotherapy Research, 10 (1985), 359-360.
356. Foley, Beans, Roots & Leaves (n. 3), pp. 275-303.
357. Barger, Martin and Mitchell, 'The Minor Alkaloids of Duboisia myoporoides' (n. 81).
358. E.M. Trautner and C.H. Noack, 'Tigloidine as a Substitute for Atropine in the Treatment of Parkinsonism', Medical Journal of Australia, 1 (1951), 751-754;
359. E.M. Trautner and S. Gershon, 'The Effect of Tigloidine on Extrapyramidal Syndromes (Huntington's Chorea)', Australasian Annals of Medicine, 7 (1958), 286-291.
360. See also review in Anonymous, 'Tigloidine Hydrobromide', British Medical Journal, 1 (1962), 253
361. and I. Sanghvi, E. Bindler and S. Gershon, 'Pharmacology of a Potential Anti-Parkinson Agent: Tigloidine', European Journal of Pharmacology, 4 (1968), 246-253.
362. E.M. Trautner and I.A.N. McCallum, 'The Action of Tropine and Heliotridine-Alkaloids on Excitation, Propagation and Recovery in Muscle', Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science, 28 (1950), 343-359;
363. Trautner and Gershon, 'The effect of tigloidine on extrapyramidal syndromes' (n. 225).
364. A.B. Cribb and J.W. Cribb, Wild Medicine in Australia (Sydney, 1981), p. 188.
365. Boehringer Ingelhieim Group of Companies, Our Planet Our Responsibility. Environment Safety Health 2000. Available at http://www.boehringer-ingelheim.com/corporate/home/download/EHSreport00.pdf (accessed 11 March 2005).
366. Damien O'Sullivan, Darren Schmidt and Marcus Priaulx, Resources of the Inland Burnett (Brisbane, 2002), p. 19.
367. Data courtesy of Alkaloids of Australia Pty Ltd. See also: Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Duboisia: District Crop Summary (Brisbane to Gympie) (1979).
368. Boehringer Ingelheim Group of Companies, Value through Innovation: Annual Report 2000. Available at http://www.boehringer-ingelheim.com/corporate/home/download/annualreport2000. pdf (accessed 11 March 2005). Duboisia has not been mentioned in subsequent reports.
369. Tsuyoshi Endo and Yasuyuki Yamada, 'Alkaloid Production in Cultured Roots of Three Species of Duboisia', Phytochemistry, 24 (1985), 1233-1236.
370. Carles Roig Celma, Javier Palazón, Rosa M. Cusidó, M. Teresa Piñol and Michael Keil, 'Decreased Scopolamine Yield in Field-Grown Duboisia Plants Regenerated from Hairy Roots', Planta Medica, 67 (2001), 249-253.
371. E.V. Lassak and T. McCarthy, Australian Medicinal Plants (Sydney, 2001), p. 196; the comment was presumably not corrected from earlier editions of the book.
372. Chris Joyce (Alkaloids of Australia), personal communication. See Alkaloids of Australia website available at http://www.alkaloids.org (accessed 11 March 2005).
373. Wood, Chudleigh and Bond, Developing New Agricultural Industries (n. 208), p. 82.
374. G.H. Gerlach, 'Daturia innoxia: A Potential Commercial Source of Scopolamine', Economic Botany, 2 (1948), 436-455.
375. Wood, Chudleigh and Bond, Developing New Agricultural Industries (n. 208), pp. 83-84;
376. Julie Lake, 'Making Duboisia Growing Profitable', Australian Horticulture, August 1992, 33-36;
377. R. Wills and D. Evans, Medicinal Herbs & Pharmaceutical Plant Extracts - R & D Opportunities: Proceedings of an RIRDC workshop held in Sydney on 8 July, 1997. Available at http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/NPP/jul97wkshp.doc (accessed 11 March 2005).