Catharine Macaulay's civil war: Gender, history, and republicanism in georgian Britain

Journal of British Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 170-198

  Hicks, Philip ^a  

^a SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33646708121     PISSN: 00219371     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/386259     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. D. R. Woolf, "A Feminine Past? Gender, Genre, and Historical Knowledge in England, 1500-1800," American Historical Review 102, no. 3 (1997): 645-79.
2. Hutchinson's memoirs of her regicide husband were written in 1664-71 but not printed until 1806, despite Macaulay's efforts to get them published earlier. Space does not permit a detailed account of this work, except to say that while Hutchinson shared Macaulay's regicide politics, the Memoirs espoused very traditional views about women's proper place, belied only by Hutchinson's own activity as a political writer and a courageous political agent for her husband. Lucy Hutchinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson with a Fragment of Autobiography, ed. N. H. Keeble (London, 1995), pp. 26, 51-52, 67, 70, 136, 233-35, 271, 279-84, 289-90, 293, 308-9, 317
3. N. H. Keeble, "Obedient Subjects? The Loyal Self in Some Later Seventeenth-Century Royalist Women's Memoirs," in Culture and Society in the Stuart Restoration: Literature, Drama, History, ed. Gerald MacLean (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 201-18;
4. Bridget Hill, The Republican Virago: The Life and Times of Catharine Macaulay, Historian (Oxford, 1992), pp. 48-49.
5. Woolf, "A Feminine Past?" pp. 677, 650-55.
6. Mark Salber Phillips, Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740-1820 (Princeton, NJ. , 2000), pp. 103-14
7. Philip Hicks, Neoclassical History and English Culture: From Clarendon to Hume (London, 1996), chaps. 1-2, pp. 173-74, 204, 215
8. Woolf, "A Feminine Past?" pp. 659-68.
9. For a literary perspective, see Devoney Looser, British Women Writers and the Writing of History, 1670-1820 (Baltimore, 2000).
10. Catharine Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James I to That of the Brunmick Line, 8 vols. (London, 1763-83) 5:79-80, 94-95, 148, 188, 213-14, 384-86, 390 (mispaginated as 382), 8:308, 330-31, 333-34.
11. henceforth cited as History. The History of England from the Revolution to the Present Time (Bath, 1778), pp. 4-5, 33-34.
12. henceforth cited as History (1778), and Observations on a Pamphlet Entitled, Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents, 3d ed. (London, 1770), pp. 7, 13-17, 20-27
13. J. G. A. Pocock, "Catharine Macaulay: Patriot Historian," in Women Writers and the Early Modern British Political Tradition, ed. Hilda L. Smith (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 245, 255-57
14. Bridget Hill, "Reinterpreting the 'Glorious Revolution': Catharine Macaulay and Radical Response," in Culture and Society in the Stuart Restoration: Literature, Drama, History, ed. Gerald MacLean (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 267-85
15. Barbara Brandon Schnorrenberg, "An Opportunity Missed: Catharine Macaulay on the Revolution of 1688," Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 20 (1990): 231-40.
16. Edmund Burke to Richard Shackleton, c. 15 August 1770, in The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, ed. Thomas W. Copeland, 10 vols. (Cambridge and Chicago, 1958-78), 2:149-50.
17. Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful and Other Pre-Revolutionary Writings, ed. David Womersley (Harmondsworth, 1998), pp. 141, 145-46, 185.
18. Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry, pp. 144, 150.
19. 'Catharine Macaulay, Letters on Education, with Observations on Religious and Metaphysical Subjects (London, 1790),-pp. 46-50, 201-2.
20. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects, ed. Miriam Brody (Harmondsworth, 1992), pp. 174, 210, 252
21. Florence S. Boos, "Catherine Macaulay's Letters on Education (1790): An Early Feminist Polemic," University of Michigan Papers in Women's Studies 2 (1976): 64-78
22. Gary Kelly, Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York, 1992), p. 83
23. Bridget Hill, "The Links between Mary Wollstonecraft and Catharine Macaulay: New Evidence," Women's History Review 4, no. 2 (1995): 177-92.
24. See, e. g. , Hill, The Republican Virago, pp. 140-42, 146-47;
25. Pocock, "Catharine Macaulay," pp. 251-52
26. Natalie Zemon Davis, "Gender and Genre: Women as Historical Writers, 1400-1820," in Beyond Their Sex: Learned Women of the European Past, ed. Patricia H. Labalme (New York, 1980), pp. 153-82, at p. 182
27. Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill, N. C. , 1980), p. 258.
28. G. J. Barker-Benfield, "Mary Wollstonecraft: Eighteenth-Century Common wealthman," Journal of the History of Ideas 50, no. 1 (1989): 95-115
29. Virginia Sapiro, A Vindication of Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft (Chicago, 1992), p. 281
30. Claudia L. Johnson, Equivocal Beings: Politics, Gender, and Sentimentality in the 1790s: Wollstonecraft, Radcliffe, Burney, Austen (Chicago, 1995), pp. 24-25.
31. Linda K. Kerber, "The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment-an American Perspective," American Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1976): 187-205.
32. Women of the Republic, pp. 11-12, 28-31, 283-85
33. Jane Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France and the United States, 1780-1860 (New York, 1984), chap. 2
34. Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca, N. Y. , 1988), p. 148.
35. Elaine Chalus, "Elite Women, Social Politics, and the Political World of Late Eighteenth-Century England," Historical Journal 43, no. 3 (2000): 669-97.
36. " My Minerva at my Elbow': The Political Roles of Women in Eighteenth-Century England," in Hanoverian Britain and Empire: Essays in Memory of Philip Lawson, ed. Stephen Taylor, Richard Connors, and Clyve Jones (Rochester, N. Y. , 1998), pp. 210-28.
37. "'That Epidemical Madness': Women and Electoral Politics in the Late Eighteenth Century," in Gender in Eighteenth-Century England: Roles, Representations and Responsibilities, ed. Elaine Chalus and Hannah Barker (London, 1997), pp. 151-78
38. Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780," Historical Journal 39, no. 2 (1996): 405-23
39. Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 49-51
40. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, Conn. , 1992), pp. 94, 260-61.
41. Phyllis Deutsch, "Moral Trespass in Georgian London: Gaming, Gender, and Electoral Politics in the Age of George III," Historical Journal 39, no. 3 (1996): 637-56;
42. Anthony Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination in England, 1500-1800 (New Haven, Conn. , 1995), pp. 411-13
43. Vivien Jones, ed. , Women in the Eighteenth Century: Constructions of Femininity (London, 1990), pp. 120, 131-38;
44. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate," pp. 419-21
45. Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism, pp. 70-72.
46. Barbara Brandon Schnorrenberg, "The Brood Hen of Faction: Mrs. Macaulay and Radical Politics, 1765-1775," Albion 11, no. 1 (1979): 33-45
47. J. Y. T. Greig, ed. , The Letters of David Hume, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1932), 2:199.
48. Catharine Macaulay, Loose Remarks on Certain Positions to be Found in Mr. Hobbes' Philosophical Rudiments of Government and Society with a Short Sketch of a Democratical Form of Government in a Letter to Signior Paoli, 2d ed. (London, 1769), pp. 23-28.
49. History, 3:190; 5:7-9, 103-4, 111, 140-11, 288; 6:32, 172, and History (1778), pp. 22-23, 77-78, 359, 370.
50. [Catharine Macaulay], Observations on the Reflections of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, on the Revolution in France, In a Letter to the Right Hon. The Earl Stanhope (London, 1790), pp. 53-55, 23-28, 86-87
51. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), ed. J. G. A. Pocock (Indianapolis, 1987), pp. 66-67.
52. Also see Barbara Brandon Schnorrenberg, " Observations on the Reflections: Macaulay Graham vs. Burke Round Three," in The Consortium of Revolutionary Europe, 1750-1850: Proceedings 1987, ed. Warren Spencer and Ellen Evans (Athens, Ga. , 1987), pp. 215-25.
53. Wilson, The Sense of the People, pp. 51-53, chaps. 3-4.
54. Anna Clark, "The Chevalier d'Eon and Wilkes: Masculinity and Politics in the Eighteenth Century," Eighteenth-Century Studies 32, no. 1 (1998): 19-48.
55. J. G. A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History: Essays on Political Thought and History. Chiefly in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1985), chap. 6, pp. 234-36.
56. G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago, 1992), chap. 3, pp. 247-50.
57. Macaulay, Observations on the Reflections, pp. 6, 7, 42, 53.
58. Wendy Gunther-Canada, "The Politics of Sense and Sensibility: Mary Wollstonecraft and Catharine Macaulay Graham on Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France," in Women Writers and the Early Modern British Political Tradition, ed. H. L. Smith, pp. 126-47
59. J. G. A. Pocock, "Introduction," in Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, pp. xxxiixxxiii, 66-70.
60. Burke's Enquiry had itself helped to create the cult of sensibility. See Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility, pp. 17, 19, 264.
61. See Macaulay, History. 3:70-73; 6:376; 7:355,490; 8:174-75.
62. For other examples, as well as an alternate interpretation, see Greg Kucich, " 'This Horrid Theatre of Human Sufferings': Gendering the Stages of History in Catharine Macaulay and Percy Bysshe Shelley," in Lessons of Romanticism: A Critical Companion, ed. Thomas Pfau and Robert F. Gleckner (Durham, N. C. , 1998), pp. 448-65.
63. Clark, "The Chevalier d'Eon and Wilkes," pp. 26-38.
64. For her judgment on rakes generally, see Macaulay, Letters on Education, p. 222.
65. History, 8:62-63.
66. J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton, NJ. , 1975), pp. 381-422.
67. Virtue, Commerce, and History, pp. 103, 114-18, 215-34, 257.
68. Caroline Robbins, The Eighteenth
69. Century Commonwealthman: Studies in the Transmission, Development and Circumstance of English Liberal Thought from the Restoration of Charles II until the War with the Thirteen Colonies (New York, 1968), pp. 3-5, 22, 358-60
70. I," in Republicanism, Liberty, and Commercial Society, 1649-1776, ed. David Wootton (Stanford, Calif. , 1994), pp. 70-71, 85-86, 104, 107-8.
71. "Milton and Marchamont Nedham," in Milton and Republicanism, ed. David Armitage, Armand Himy, and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 170-71
72. Hanna F. Pitkin, Fortune Is a Woman: Gender and Politics in the Thought of Niccolo Machiavelli (Berkeley, 1984), pp. 5, 25, 48-51, 109-10, 305.
73. [James Burgh], The Dignity of Human Nature, or, a Brief Account of the Certain and Established Means for Attaining the True End of Our Existence (London, 1754), pp. 276, 54, 66, 75, 76, 125, 153, 162.
74. For a more positive view of women, see [James Burgh], Thoughts on Education: Tending Chiefly to Recommend to the Attention of the Public, Some Particulars Relating to that Subject (Boston, 1749), pp. 53-57
75. Carla H. Hay, James Burgh, Spokesman for Reform in Hanoverian England (Washington, D. C. , 1979), p. 65.
76. For Milton's objections to women in politics, see, e. g. , Eikonoklastes (1649)
77. Complete Prose Works of John Milton, ed. Don M. Wolfe, 8 vols. (New Haven, Conn. , 1953-82), 3:421, 370, 455.
78. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (pp. 100, 101, 143, 152).
79. Wollstonecraft took offense at various passages in Paradise Lost (4. 295-99, 634-38; 8. 551-54, 576-78; 10. 956).
80. [John Brown], An Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times, 2 vols. (London, 1757-58), 1:125
81. Gerald Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740-1830 (New York, 1987), pp. 59-60, 70-84
82. Michele Cohen, Fashioning Masculinity: National Identity and Language in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1996), pp. 4-9
83. Linda Colley, "Radical Patriotism in Eighteenth-Century England," in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, ed. Raphael Samuel, 3 vols. (London, 1988), 1: 169-87.
84. Macaulay, History, 5:22; 3:356; 2:449, 81, 82.
85. History (1778), p. 162.
86. For examples of these contrasting manly and effeminate traits, see Macaulay, History, 1:276-77.
87. John Brewer, "The Misfortunes of Lord Bute: A Case Study in Eighteenth-Century Political Argument and Public Opinion," Historical Journal 16, no. 1 (1973): 3-43;
88. Macaulay, History, 2:224, 220.
89. See Royce MacGillivray, Restoration Historians and the English Civil War (The Hague, 1974), pp. 237-42
90. Edward Hyde, first earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, ed. W. Dunn Macray, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1888), 1: 2, 4, 55.
91. For general links between luxury and effeminacy, see Macaulay, History, 2:224.
92. Hutchinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson, pp. 67, 70.
93. Milton, Eikonoklastes (1649).
94. Complete Prose Works, 3:419-23, 450, 452, 459, 525-26, 538-39, 541.
95. David Hume, The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 (1754-62), 6 vols. (Indianapolis, 1983), 5:221-22, 264, 364-65, 373, 384, 407, 451-56.
96. Clarendon had to tone down his criticisms to make them acceptable to his original readers, the queen's husband and son (Charles I and the Prince of Wales), suggests Martine Watson Brownley in "The Women in Clarendon's Life and Works," The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation 22, no. 2 (1981): 153-74.
97. For policy differences between Clarendon and the queen, see B. H. G. Wormald, Clarendon: Politics, History, and Religion, 1640-1660 (Cambridge, 1951), pp. 70, 146, 231-33.
98. For contemporary uses of "amazon," see Dror Wahrman, " Percy's Prologue: From Gender Play to Gender Panic in Eighteenth-Century England," Past and Present, no. 159 (May 1998): 113-60, at 132-36.
99. For the petition, see Macaulay, History, 4: 31-33
100. Patricia Higgins, "The Reactions of Women, with Special Reference to Women Petitioners," in Politics, Religion and the English Civil War, ed. Brian Manning (New York, 1973), pp. 189-99.
101. Hume, History of England, 4:351-53.
102. see New Letters of David Hume, ed. Raymond Klibansky and Ernest C. Mossner (Oxford, 1954), p. 81.
103. Clark, "The Chevalier d'Eon and Wilkes," p. 33. Hill, The Republican Virago, pp. 138-39. London Chronicle (30 June-3 July 1770). Monthly Review 58 (February 1778): 111.
104. Macaulay, History, 8:62, 59.
105. Macaulay, History, l:vii.
106. For links between education and patriotism generally, see History, l:vii, 274-76; 4:431; 6:358-59.
107. Key elements of this analysis appear indebted to Thomas Hobbes, Behemoth or the Long Parliament (1679), ed. Ferdinand Tönnies, 2d ed. (London, 1969), pp. 23, 43, 155, 158.
108. Hume, History of England, 3:80-82; 4:384-85; 5:80.
109. Also see Dror Wahrman, "Gender in Translation: How the English Wrote Their Juvenal, 1644-1815," Representations 65 (Winter 1999): 19-20.
110. Barker-Benfield, "Mary Wollstonecraft," pp. 106-10.
111. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, pp. 86, 256. "See, e. g. , the borrowing identified above, nn. 50, 69. Macaulay's text is shot through with citations from both historians.
112. Hicks, Neoclassical History and English Culture, chaps. 3, 7;
113. Karen O'Brien, Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan History from Voltaire to Gibbon (Cambridge, 1997), chap. 3
114. Nicholas Phillipson, Hume (London, 1989);
115. David L. Smith, Constitutional Royalism and the Search for Settlement, c. 1640-1649 (Cambridge, 1994);
116. Martine Watson Brownley, Clarendon and the Rhetoric of Historical Form (Philadelphia, 1985).
117. Also see Donald T. Siebert, "Catherine Macaulay's History of England: Antidote to Hume's History?" Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, no. 303 (1992), pp. 393-96.
118. Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, 4:488.
119. David Hume, "My Own Life," in his Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis, 1987), p. xxxvii.
120. Brownley, "The Women in Clarendon's Life and Works," pp. 153-54, 173.
121. "Nature has given man the superiority above woman, by endowing him with greater strength both of mind and body" (Hume, "Of the Rise and Progress of the Arts and Sciences," in Essays, p. 133).
122. Hume, History of England, 2:408-10, 235, 236
123. J. G. A. Pocock, Barbarism and Religion, vol. 2, Narratives of Civil Government (Cambridge, 1999), p. 249.
124. Pocock, Barbarism and Religion, 2:234
125. Sylvana Tomaselli, "The Enlightenment Debate on Women," History Workshop 20 (Autumn 1985): 101-24
126. Rosemarie Zagani, "Morals, Manners, and the Republican
127. Mother," American Quarterly 44, no. 2 (1992): 192-215
128. Hume, "Of Refinement in the Arts," "Of the Rise and Progress of the Arts and
129. Sciences," in Essays, pp. 269-72, 275-77, 132-34
130. For example, the female petitioners of 1642, discussed below. In another instance, Hume trivialized as farce the Dutch girl's saving of Muyden from the French in 1672 (Hume, History of England, 6:263).
131. while Macaulay contrasted her "sagacity and resolution" with the town's "cowardly" magistrates (Macaulay, History, 6:345).
132. As discussed elsewhere in this article, Macaulay takes offense at Hume's praise of Elizabeth I's manly character, Mary Π's docility, and Henrietta Maria's relationship with Charles I. Macaulay also rejects Clarendon's approbation of the female peace petitioners of 1643 (History of the Rebellion, 3:139-40).
133. Clarendon treats the episode of Hamilton's mother neutrally (History of the Rebellion, 1:159; 3:318).
134. while Macaulay draws out her heroism (History, 2:293).
135. Hume is neutral regarding the fortifying of Leith (History of England, 5:263).
136. Mrs. Gaunt and Lady Lisle (History of England, 6:464-65)
137. Macaulay (History, 7:444-46).
138. Bulstrode Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs, or an Historical Account of what Passed from the Beginning of the Reign of King Charles the First, to King Charles the Second his Happy Restauration (London, 1682), p. 24.
139. Macaulay, History, 8:319.
140. Clarendon called Charles "the best husband," a "great. . . example of conjugal affection" (History of the Rebellion, 4:489, 492).
141. Macaulay condemned the submissiveness of both Charles and Mary (History, 2: 13, 100, 212, 404; 3:150; 4:197, 422; 8:315, 319).
142. For passive obedience, see History, 1:274; 2:380; 3:345; 8:67.
143. Catharine Macaulay, History of England, original manuscript, New York Historical Society, BV, vol. 2, fol. 459.
144. Marie Peters, Pitt and Popularity: The Patriot Minister and London Opinion during the Seven Years War (Oxford, 1980), pp. 203-6
145. John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George IH (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 96-105.
146. quot;It would indeed be a happiness to society, if women, who give such a biass to the morals and manners of men, were early taught to set a just value on solid and virtuous qualities, instead of admiring frivolous and delusive accomplishments. But according to the present modes of female education, it is difficult for a man of sense and worth to make any impression on a woman's mind, without first debasing his own. " See review of History, Monthly Review 32 (April 1765): 270-71.
147. For this historiographical tradition, see J. H. M. Salmon, "Precept, Example, and Truth: Degory Wheare and the Ars Historica," in The Historical Imagination in Early Modem Britain: History, Rhetoric, and Fiction, 1500-1800, ed. Donald R. Kelley and David Harris Sacks (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 11-36
148. Joseph M. Levine, The Battle of the Books: History and Literature in the Augustan Age (Ithaca, N. Y. , 1991), chap. 9
149. Hume, History of England, 5:545-46.
150. Maculay, History, 7:445.
151. For a modern account of Arria, see Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity (New York, 1975), p. 161.
152. for Rachel Russell, see Lois G. Schwoerer, Lady Rachel Russell: "One of the Best of Women" (Baltimore, 1988).
153. Livy, Ab urbe condita (The history of Rome from its foundation), 2. 40.
154. The Early History of Rome, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt (Harmondsworth, 1971), p. 150.
155. Of the four sources Macaulay used for this portion of her narrative, she relied most heavily on Whitelocke, Memorials of the English Affairs, p. 29.
156. Also see [Henry Guthry], The Memoirs of Henry Guthry, Late Bishop of Dunkeld, 2d ed. (Glasgow, 1748), pp. 56-57;
157. Gilbert Burnet, The Memoires of the Lives and Actions of James and William, Dukes of Hamilton and Castleherald (London, 1677), p. 132;
158. John Rushworth, Historical Collections of Private Passages of State, Weighty Matters in Law, Remarkable Proceedings in Five Parliaments, 6 vols. (London, 1680-1701), 2:935.
159. Both Hume and Macaulay made more of the women's role in this episode than their source had. Compare Guthry, Memoirs, p. 54.
160. Catharine Macaulay, An Address to the People of England, Ireland, and Scotland, on the Present Important Crisis of Affairs, 3d ed. (New York, 1775), p. 10.
161. Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, 3:139-40.
162. Whitelocke mentioned "the City Dames" and their petition only in passing (Memorials of the English Affairs, p. 52).
163. For the rewards bestowed upon the Roman matrons, see William Alexander, The History of Women, from the Earliest Antiquity to the Present Time, 3d ed. , 2 vols. (London, 1782), 1:206, 211-13.
164. Besides this Roman example, Macaulay applauded the "very civil" reception parliament accorded the counterrevolutionary peace petition of 1643. She indicated that this virtuous assembly respected women's right to participate in the political process, even though this petition, like that of 195 B. C. , was in her view misguided (History, 4:31-33).
165. As Susan Staves has surmised, in an otherwise insightful essay, "'The Liberty of a She-Subject of England': Rights Rhetoric and the Female Thucydides," Cardozo Studies in Law and Literature 1, no. 1 (1989): 161-83.
166. For the importance of ancient history as a source of republican thought, see Zera S. Fink, The Classical Republicans: An Essay in the Recovery of a Pattern of Thought in Seventeenth-Century England (Evanston, IU. , 1945);
167. Robbins, The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman, pp. 44, 105-8, 200-201.
168. Twice Clarendon damned politically intriguing women, Monck's wife and Mrs. Windham (the Prince of Wales's nurse), by likening them to Fulvia as she appeared in Paterculus's History (2. 74).
169. "Fulvia, the wife of Antony, who had nothing of the woman in her except her sex, was creating general confusion by armed violence. " Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, trans. Frederick \V. Shipley (London, 1924), pp. 207-9;
170. Hume alluded to several classical women, both good and bad, including Fulvia {Essays, pp. 130, 564-65, 589).
171. Barbara Caine, English Feminism, 1780-1980 (Oxford, 1997), pp. 36-37;
172. Sapiro, A Vindication of Political Virtue, pp. 232, 259, 269;
173. Elissa S. Guralnick, "Radical Politics in Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," Studies in Burke and His Time 18, no. 3 (1977): 155-66, at 165.
174. For a literary analysis of the worthies, Macaulay, and the Roman matrons, see the important study by Harriet Guest, Small Change: Women, Learning, Patriotism, 1750-1810 (Chicago, 2000), chaps. 2, 9.
175. George Ballard, Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain (1752), ed. Ruth Perry (Detroit, 1985).
176. William Walsh, A Dialogue Concerning Women, Being a Defence of the Sex. Written to Eugenia (London, 1691), pp. 127-28.
177. Nahum Tate, A Present for the Ladies: Being a Historical Vindication of the Female Sex (London, 1692), pp. 39-42, 46-48, 53-54, 76, 88-96;
178. Alexander, History of Women, 1:204-5, 211-13, 389.
179. "Sophia," Woman Not Inferior to Man (London, 1739), pp. 54-55.
180. "Sophia," Beauty's Triumph; or, the Superiority of the Fair Sex Invincibly Proved (London, 1751), p. 39;
181. Walsh, A Dialogue Concerning Women, pp. 128-34;
182. Tate, A Present for the Ladies, pp. 98-100;
183. Ballard, Memoirs, pp. 212, 230-31.
184. Macaulay, An Address to the People, p. 6, and Observations on a Pamphlet,