The rate of small impacts on Earth

Meteoritics and Planetary Science

Volumn 41, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 607-631

  Bland, Philip A ^a,b   Artemieva, Natalya A ^c  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b DEPARTMENT OF LIFE SCIENCES   (United Kingdom)

^c INSTITUTE OF GEOSPHERE DYNAMICS   (Russian Federation)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABLATION; ASTEROID; FRAGMENTATION; IMPACT; IRON METEORITE; STONY METEORITE;

EID: 33646416795     PISSN: 10869379     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00485.x     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Artemieva N. A. and Bland P. A. 2003. Crater fields on Venus, Earth, and Mars (abstract #1319). 34th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. CD-ROM.
2. Artemieva N. A. and Shuvalov V. V. 1996. Interaction of shock waves during the passage of a disrupted meteoroid through the atmosphere. Shock Waves 5:359-367.
3. Artemieva N. A. and Shuvalov V. V. 2001. Motion of a fragmented meteoroid through the planetary atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:3297-3310.
4. Bailey M. E. and Stagg C. R. 1988. Cratering constraints on the inner Oort Cloud: Steady-state models. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 235:1-35.
5. Bailey M. E. and Emel'yanekno V. V. 1998. Cometary capture and the nature of the impactors. In Meteorites: Flux with time and impact effects, edited by Grady M. M., Hutchison R., McCall G. J. H., and Rothery D. A. London: Geological Society, Special Publication 140. pp. 11-17.
6. Binzel R. P., Harris A. W., Bus S. J., and Burbine T. H. 2001. Spectral properties of near-Earth objects: Palomar and IRTF results for 48 objects including spacecraft targets (9969) Braille (10302) and 1989 ML. Icarus 151:139-149.
7. Binzel R. P., Lupishko D. F., Di Martino M., Whiteley R. J, and Hahn G.J. 2003. Physical properties of near-Earth objects. In Asteroids III, edited by Bottke W. F., Cellino A., Paolicchi P., and Binzel R. P. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 255-271.
8. Bland P. A., Sexton A., Jull A. J. T., Berry F. J., Bevan A. W. R., Thomley D., Astin T., and Pillinger C. T. 1998. Climate and rock weathering: A study of terrestrial age dated ordinary chondritic meteorites from hot desert regions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 62:3169-3184.
9. Bland P. A., Smith T. B., Jull A. J. T., Berry F. J., Bevan A. W. R., Cloudt S., and Pillinger C. T. 1996. The flux of meteorites to the Earth over the last 50,000 years. Monthly Notices ofthe Royal Astronomical Society 283:551-565.
10. Bland P. A. and Artemieva N. A. 2003. Efficient disruption of small asteroids by Earth's atmosphere. Nature 424:288-291.
11. Bottke W. F., Jr., Durda D. D., Nesvorný D., Jedicke R., Morbidelli A., Vokrouhlický D., and Levison H. 2005. The fossilized size distribution of the main asteroid belt. Icarus 175:111-140.
12. Bottke W. F., Jr., Nesvorný D., and Durda D. D. 2005. Are most small craters primaries or secondaries: Insights from asteroid collisional/dynamical evolution models (abstract #1489). 36th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. CD-ROM.
13. Brown P., Spalding R. E., ReVelle D. O., Tagliaferri E., and Worden S.P. 2002. The flux of small near-Earth objects colliding with the Earth. Nature 420:294-296.
14. Burbine T. H. 2002. Asteroids: Their composition and impact threat. Bulletin of the Czech Geological Survey 77:71-80.
15. Bus S. J. and Binzel R. P. 2002. Phase II of the small main belt asteroid spectroscopic survey: A feature-based taxonomy. Icarus 158: 146-177.
16. Ceplecha Z. and ReVelle D. O. 2005. Fragmentation model of meteoroid motion, mass loss, and radiation in the atmosphere. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 40:35-54.
17. Ceplecha Z., Spurný P., Borovička J., and Keclíková J. 1993. Atmospheric fragmentation of meteoroids. Astronomy & Astrophysics 279:615-626.
18. Chapman C. R. and Morrison D. 1994. Impacts on the Earth by asteroids and comets: Assessing the hazard. Nature 367:33-39.
19. Chyba C. F., Thomas P. J., and Zahnle K. J. 1993. The 1908 Tunguska explosion: Atmospheric disruption of a stony asteroid. Nature 361:40-44.
20. Cochrane C. 2002. Depth/diameter ratios of impact craters on Venus (abstract #MS014). Proceedings, 36th Vernadsky Institute/Brown University Microsymposium in Comparative Planetology.
21. Consomagno G. J., Britt D. T., and Stoll C. P. 1998. The porosity of ordinary chondrites: Models and interpretations. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 33:1221-1229.
22. Crawford D. A. 1997. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 fragment size estimates: How big was the parent body? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Near-Earth Objects. 822:155-173.
23. Dohnanyi J. W. 1969. Collisional models of asteroids and their debris. Journal of Geophysical Research 74:2531-2554.
24. Earth Impact Database, http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase. Last accessed November 10, 2005.
25. Farinella P., Paolicchi P., and Zappala V. 1982. Fragmentation of Hyperion and cratering of Saturn's satellites. Hvar Observatory Bulletin 6:167.
26. Farinella P, Milani A.,Nobili A. M., Paolicchi P., and Zappala V. 1983. Hyperion - Collisional disruption of a resonant satellite. Icarus 54:353-360.
27. Fujiwara A. and Tsukamoto A. 1980. Experimental study on the velocity of fragments in collisional breakup. Icarus 44:142-153.
28. Gault D. E., Hörz F., and Hartung J. B. 1972. Effects of microcratering on the lunar surface. Proceedings, 3rd Lunar Science Conference. p.2713-2734.
29. Gilbert G. K. 1893. The Moon's face, a study of the origin of its features. Bulletin of the Philosopical Society of Washington 12: 241-292.
30. Grady D. E. and Lipkin J. 1980. Criteria for impulsive rock fracture. Geophysical Research Letters 7:255-258.
31. Grady M. M. 2000. Catalogue of meteorites, 5th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. Grieve R. A. F. and Shoemaker E. M. 1994. The record of past impacts on Earth. In Hazards due to comets and asteroids, edited by Gehrels T. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 417-462.
33. Gurov E. P. 1996. The group of Macha Craters in Western Yakutia (abstract). 27th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p. 473.
34. Halliday I., Blackwell A. T., and Griffin A. A. 1989. The flux of meteorites on the Earth's surface. Meteoritics 24:173-178.
35. Halliday L, Griffin A. A., and Blackwell A. T. 1996. Detailed data for 259 fireballs from the Canadian camera network and inferences concerning the influx of large meteoroids. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 31:185-217.
36. Harris A. W. 2003. Just how many Tunguskas are there? Recent progress in estimating the size-frequency distribution of NEAs. Proceedings, Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 2002.
37. Hartmann W. K. 1967. Lunar crater counts II: Three lunar-surface-type areas. Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory 7:145-156.
38. Hartmann W. K. 1970. Preliminary note on lunar cratering rates and absolute time scales. Icarus 12:131-133.
39. Hartmann W. K. 1977. Relative crater production rates on planets. Icarus 31:260-276.
40. Hartmann W. K. 1999. Martian crater counting VI: Crater count isochrons and evidence for recent volcanism from Mars Global Surveyor. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 34:167-177.
41. Hartmann W. K. and Neukum G, 2001. Cratering chronology and the evolution of Mars. Space Science Reviews 96:165-194.
42. Hartmann W. K., Strom R. G., Grieve R. A. F., Weidenschilling S. J., Diaz J., Blasius K. R., Chapman C. R., Woronow A., Shoemaker E. M., Dence M. R., and Jones K. L. 1981. Chronology of planetary volcanism by comparative studies of planetary cratering. In Basaltic volcanism on the terrestrial planets, Basaltic Volcanism Study Project. New York: Pergamon Press. pp. 1050-1129.
43. Hiesinger H., Head J. W., Wolf U., Jaumann R., and Neukum G. 2003. Ages and stratigraphy of mare basalts in Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Nubium, Mare Cognitum, and Mare Insularum. Journal of Geophysical Research, doi:10.1029/2002JE001985.
44. Herrick R. R. and Lyons S. N. 1998. Inversion of crater morphometric data to gain insight onto the cratering process. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 33:131-143.
45. Hills J. G. and Goda M. P. 1993. The fragmentation of small asteroids in the atmosphere. The Astronomical Journal 105:1114-1144.
46. Hills J. G. and Goda M. P. 1998. Damage from the impacts of small asteroids. Planetary and Space Science 46:219-229.
47. Hughes D. W. 1994. Comets and asteroids. Contemporary Physics 35: 75-93.
48. Hughes D. W. 2000. A new approach to the calculation of the cratering rate of the Earth over the last 125 ± 20 Myr. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 317:429-437.
49. Ivanov B. A., Basilevsky A. T., and Neukum G. 1997. Atmospheric entry of large meteoroids: Implication to Titan. Planetary and Space Science 45:993-1007.
50. Ivanov B. A., Neukum G., and Wagner R. 2001. Size-frequency distributions of planetary impact craters and asteroids. In Collisional processes in the solar system, edited by Marov M. Y. and Rickman H. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 1-34.
51. Ivanov B. A., Neukum G., Bottke W. F., and Hartmann W. K. 2003. The comparison of size-frequency distributions of impact craters and asteroids and the planetary cratering rate. In Asteroids III, edited by Bottke W. F., Cellino A., Paolicchi P., and Binzel R. P. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 89-101.
52. Ivanov B. A. 2001. Mars/Moon cratering ratio estimates. In Chronology and evolution of Mars, edited by Kallenbach R., Geiss J., and Hartmann W. K. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 87-104.
53. Koeberl C. 1998. Identification of meteoritic components in impactites. In Meteorites: Flux with time and impact effects, edited by Grady M. M., Hutchison R., McCall G. J. H., and Rothery D. A. London: Geological Society. pp. 133-153.
54. Kyte F. T. 1998. A meteorite from the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Nature 396:237-239.
55. Levison H. F., Morbidelli A., Dones L., Jedicke R., Wiegert P. A., and Bottke W. F. 2002. The mass disruption of Oort Cloud comets. Science 296:2212-2215.
56. McDonald I. 2002. Clearwater East impact structure: A reinterpretation of the projectile type using new platinum-group element data from meteorites. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 37:459-464.
57. McDonald I., Andreoli M. A. G, Hart R. J., and Tredoux M. 2001. Platinum-group elements in the Morokweng impact structure, South Africa: Evidence for the impact of a large ordinary chondrite projectile at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65:299-309.
58. McEwen A., Preblich B., Turtle E., Studer D., Artemieva N., Golombek M., Hurst M., Kirk R., and Burr D. 2005. Distant secondary craters and age constraints on young Martian terrains (abstract #2111). 36th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. CD-ROM.
59. McKinnon W. B., Zahnle K. J., Ivanov B. A., and Melosh H. J. 1997. Cratering on Venus: Models and observations. In Venus II: Geology, geophysics, atmosphere, and solar wind environment, edited by Bougher S. W., Hunten D. M., and Philips R. J. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. 969 p.
60. Melosh H. J. 1981. Atmospheric breakup of terrestrial impactors. In Multi-ring basins, edited by Schultz P. H. and Merrill R. B. New York: Pergamon Press. pp 29-35.
61. Melosh H. J. 1989. Impact cratering: A geological process. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 245 p.
62. Melosh H. J. and Collins G S. 2005. Meteor crater formed by low-velocity impact. Nature 434:157.
63. Milton D. J. 1972. Structural geology of the Henbury meteorite craters, Northern Territory, Australia. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper #599-C. pp. C1-C17.
64. Moore H. J., Plaut J. J., and Parker T. J. 1993. Relief of some small landforms on Venus (abstract). 24th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. pp. 1003-1004.
65. Morbidelli A., Jedicke R., Bottke W. F., Michel P., and Tedesco E. F. 2002. From magnitudes to diameters: The albedo distribution of near-Earth objects and the Earth collision hazard. Icarus 158:329-343.
66. Morrison D., Chapman C. R., and Slovic P. 1994. The impact hazard. In Hazards due to comets and asteroids, edited by Gehrels T. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp 59-91.
67. Napier W. M. 1998. Galactic periodicity and the geological record. In Meteorites: Flux with time and impact effects, edited by Grady M. M., Hutchison R., McCall G, J. H., and Rothery D. A. London: Geological Society. pp. 19-29.
68. Napier W. M. and Clube S. V. M. 1979. A theory of terrestrial catastrophism. Nature 282:455-459.
69. Nerritchinov I. V., Svetsov V. V, Kosarev I. B., Golub' A. P., Popova O. P., and Shuvalov V. V. 1997. Assessment of the kinetic energy of meteoroids detected by satellite-based light sensors. Icarus 130:259-274.
70. Neukum G. and Wise D. U. 1976. Mars: A standard crater curve and possible new timescale. Science 194:1381-1387.
71. Neukum G. and Ivanov B. A. 1994. Crater size distributions and impact probabilities on Earth from lunar, terrestrial-planet, and asteroid cratering data. In Hazards due to comets and asteroids, edited by Gehrels T. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 359-416.
72. Neukum G., König B., Fechtig H., and Storzer D. 1975. Cratering in the Earth-Moon system: Consequences for age determination by crater counting. Proceedings, 6th Lunar Science Conference. pp. 2597-2620.
73. Neukum G., Ivanov B. A., and Hartmann W. K. 2001. Cratering records in the inner solar system in relation to the lunar reference system. In Chronology and evolution of Mars, edited by Kallenbach R., Geiss J., and Hartmann W. K. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 55-86.
74. O'Keefe J. D., Takata T., and Ahrens T. J. 1994. Penetration of large bolides into dense planetary atmospheres - Role of instabilities (abstract). 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. pp.1023-1024.
75. Passey Q. R. and Melosh H. J. 1980. Effects of atmospheric breakup on crater field formation. Icarus 42:211-233.
76. Plescia J. B. 2005. Small-diameter Martian craters: Applicability for chronology - or not (abstract #2171). 36th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. CD-ROM.
77. Rabinowitz D. 1993. The size-distribution of the Earth-approaching asteroids. The Astrophysical Journal 407:412-427.
78. Rabinowitz D., Helin E., Lawrence K., and Pravdo S. 2000. A reduced estimate of the number of kilometre-sized near-Earth asteroids. Nature 403:165-166.
79. Rajan R. S. and ReVelle D. O. 1988. Identification of nickel-iron material among the Prairie Network fireballs. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 20:862.
80. Rampino M. R. and Haggerty B. M. 1994. Extraterrestrial impacts and mass extinctions of life. In Hazards due to comets and asteroids, edited by Gehrels T. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp. 827-857.
81. Rampino M. R. and Stothers R. B. 1984. Terrestrial mass extinctions, cometary impacts, and the Sun's motion perpendicular to the galactic plane. Nature 308:709-712.
82. Raup D. M. and Sepkoski J. J. 1984. Periodicity of extinctions in the geological past. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 81:801-805.
83. ReVelle D. O. 1997. Historical detection of atmospheric impacts by large bolides using acoustic-gravity waves. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 822:284-302.
84. ReVelle D. O. and Ceplecha Z. 1994. Analysis of identified iron meteoroids: Possible relation with M-type Earth-crossing asteroids? Astronomy and Astrophysics 292:330-336.
85. Schmidt R. M. and Housen K. R. 1987. Some recent advances in the scaling of impact and explosion cratering. International Journal of Impact Engineering 65:543-560.
86. Schultz P.H. and Gault D.E. 1985. Clustered impacts: Experiments and implications. Journal of Geophysical Research 90:3701-3732.
87. Shoemaker E. M. 1962. Interpretation of lunar craters. In Physics and Astronomy of the Moon, edited by Kopal Z. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 283-359.
88. Shoemaker E. M. 1965. Preliminary analysis of the fine structure of the lunar surface in Mare Cognitum. JPL-NASA Technical Report #32-700.75p.
89. Shoemaker E. M. 1977. Astronomically observable crater-forming projectiles. In Impact and explosion cratering, edited by Roddy D. J., Pepin R. O., and Merrill R. B. New York: Pergamon Press. pp.617-628.
90. Shoemaker E. M. 1983. Asteroid and comet bombardment of the Earth. Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science 11:461-494.
91. Shoemaker E. M. 1998. Long-term variations in the impact cratering rate on Earth. In Meteorites: Flux with time and impact effects, edited by Grady M. M., Hutchison R., McCall G. J. H., and Rothery D. A. London: Geological Society. pp. 7-10.
92. Shoemaker E. M. and Shoemaker C. S. 1988. Impact structure of Australia (1987) (abstract). 19th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p. 1079.
93. Shoemaker E. M. and Shoemaker C. S. 1990. Proterozoic impact record of Australia. In International Workshop on Meteorite Impact on the Early Earth. Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute. LPI Contribution #746. pp. 47-48.
94. Shoemaker E. M., Wolfe R. F., and Shoemaker E. M. 1990. Asteroid and comet flux in the neighborhood of the Earth. In Global catastrophes in Earth history: An interdisciplinary conference on impacts, volcanism, and mass mortality, edited by Sharpton V. L. and Ward P. D. GSA Special Paper #247. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. pp. 155-170.
95. Shukolyukov A. and Lugmair G. W. 1998. Isotopic evidence for the Cretaceous-Tertiary impactor and its type. Science 282:927-929.
96. Shukolyukov A. and Lugmair G. W. 2000. Extraterrestrial matter on Earth: Evidence from the Cr isotopes. In Catastrophic events and mass extinctions: Impacts and beyond LPI Contribution #1053. Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute. pp. 197-198.
97. Shukolyukov A., Lugmair G. W., Koeberl C., and Reimold W. U. 1999. Chromium in the Morokweng impact melt: Isotopic evidence for extraterrestrial component and type of the impactor (abstract). Meteoritics & Planetary Science 34:A107-A108.
98. Shukolyukov A., Kyte F. T., Lugmair G. W., Lowe D. R., and Byerly G. R. 2000. The oldest impact deposits on Earth - First confirmation of an extraterrestrial component. In Impacts and the early Earth, edited by Gilmour I. and Koeberl C. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 99-115.
99. Shuvalov V. V., Artemieva N. A., and Trubetskaya I. A. 2000. Simulating the motion ofa disrupted meteoroid with allowance for evaporation. Solar System Research 34:49-60.
100. Shuvalov V. V. and Artemieva N. A. 2002. Numerical modeling of Tunguska-like impacts. Planetary and Space Science 50:181-192.
101. Schmidt R. M. and Housen K. R. 1987. Some recent advances in the scaling of impact and explosion cratering. International Journal of Impact Engineering 5:543-560.
102. Stuart J. S. 2001. A near-Earth asteroid population estimate from the LINEAR survey. Science 294:1691-1693.
103. Svetsov V. V., Nemtchinov I. V., and Teterev A. V. 1995. Disintegration of large meteoroids in Earth's atmosphere: Theoretical models. Icarus 116:131-153.
104. Toon O. B., Zahnle K., Turco R. P., and Covery C. 1994. Environmental perturbations caused by asteroid impacts. In Hazards due to comets and asteroids, edited by Gehrels T. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. pp 791-826.
105. Tsvetskov V. I. and Skripnik A. Ya. 1991. Atmospheric fragmentation of meteorites according to strength theory. Solar System Research 25:273-279.
106. Ward S. N. 2002. Planetary cratering: A probabilistic approach. Journal of Geophysical Research 107:7-1-7-11.
107. Ward S. N. and Asphaug E. 2000. Asteroid impact tsunami: A probabilistic hazard assessment. Icarus 145:64-78.
108. Weissman P. R. 1990. The cometary impactor flux at the Earth. In Global catastrophes in Earth history: An interdisciplinary conference on impacts, volcanism, and mass mortality, edited by Sharpton V. L. and Ward P. D. Special Paper #247. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. pp. 171-180.
109. Werner S. C., Harris A. W., Neukum G., and Ivanov B. A. 2002. The near-Earth asteroid size-frequency distribution: A snapshot of the lunar impactor size-frequency distribution. Icarus 156:287-290.
110. Zahnle K., Schenk P., Levinson H., and Dones L. 2003. Cratering rates in the outer solar system. Icarus 163:263-289.
111. Zotkin I. T. and Tsvetkov V. I. 1983. On the form of iron meteorites. Solar System Research 17:60-62.