HIV vaccines

Annual Review of Immunology

Volumn 24, Issue , 2006, Pages 227-255

  McMichael, Andrew J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

HIV 1; Neutralizing antibody; T cell immunity; Vaccination

Indexed keywords

DENDRITIC CELL VACCINE; GAG PROTEIN; GLYCOPROTEIN GP 120; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS VACCINE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY 2F5; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY 2G12; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY 4E10; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY B12; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY X5; NEF PROTEIN; NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY; PARVOVIRUS VECTOR; PLASMID DNA; POL PROTEIN; RECOMBINANT CANARYPOX VACCINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS ENVELOPE PROTEIN; VIRUS VACCINE;

ANTIBODY RESPONSE; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CD8+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG DESIGN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; T LYMPHOCYTE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VACCINATION; VACCINE PRODUCTION; VIRAL GENE DELIVERY SYSTEM; VIRUS ENVELOPE; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS MUTATION;

AIDS VACCINES; ANIMALS; CD4-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES; CLINICAL TRIALS; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; MACACA; MODELS, IMMUNOLOGICAL; NEUTRALIZATION TESTS; SAIDS VACCINES;

EID: 33646172660     PISSN: 07320582     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090605     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. Willerford DM, Bwayo JJ, Hensel M, Emonyi W, Plummer FA, et al. 1993. Human immunodeficiency virus infection among high-risk seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1414-17
2. Gray RH, Wawer MJ, Brookmeyer R, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, et al. 2001. Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet 357:1149-53
3. Vittinghoff E, Douglas J, Judson F, McKirnan D, MacQueen K, Buchbinder SP. 1999. Per-contact risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission between male sexual partners. Am. J. Epidemiol. 150:306-11
4. Modjarrad K, Zulu I, Karita E, Kancheya N, Funkhouser E, Allen S. 2005. Predictors of HIV serostatus among HIV discordant couples in Lusaka, Zambia and female antenatal clinic attendants in Kigali, Rwanda. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 21:5-12
5. Fideli US, Allen SA, Musonda R, Trask S, Hahn BH, et al. 2001. Virologic and immunologic determinants of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Africa. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 17:901-10
6. + T cells. Nature 434:1148-52
7. Pope M, Haase AT. 2003. Transmission, acute HIV-1 infection and the quest for strategies to prevent infection. Nat. Med. 9:847-52
8. Fong L, Mengozzi M, Abbey NW, Herndier BG, Engleman EG. 2002. Productive infection of plasmacytoid dendritic cells with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is triggered by CD40 ligation. J. Virol. 76:11033-41
9. Fonteneau JF, Larsson M, Beignon AS, McKenna K, Dasilva I, et al. 2004. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activates plasmacytoid dendritic cells and concomitantly induces the bystander maturation of myeloid dendritic cells. J. Virol. 78:5223-32
10. Geijtenbeek TB, Kwon DS, Torensma R, van Vliet SJ, van Duijnhoven GC, et al. 2000. DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells. Cell 100:587-97
11. Kwon DS, Gregorio G, Bitton N, Hendrickson WA, Littman DR. 2002. DC-SIGN-mediated internalization of HIV is required for trans-enhancement of T cell infection. Immunity 16:135-44
12. Pope M, Betjes MG, Romani N, Hirmand H, Cameron PU, et al. 1994. Conjugates of dendritic cells and memory T lymphocytes from skin facilitate productive infection with HIV-1. Cell 78:389-98
13. + T cells. Nature 417:95-98
14. + T cells in multiple tissues during acute SIV infection. Nature 434:1093-97
15. Phillips AN. 1996. Reduction of HIV concentration during acute infection: independence from a specific immune response. Science 271:497-99
16. + cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity associated with control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J. Virol. 68:6103-10
17. Safrit JT, Andrews CA, Zhu T, Ho DD, Koup RA. 1994. Characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte clones isolated during acute seroconversion: recognition of autologous virus sequences within a conserved immunodominant epitope. J. Exp. Med. 179:463-72
18. Ioannidis JP, McQueen PG, Goedert JJ, Kaslow RA. 1998. Use of neural networks to model complex immunogenetic associations of disease: human leukocyte antigen impact on the progression of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am. J. Epidemiol. 147:464-71
19. Bhardwaj N. 2001. Processing and presentation of antigens by dendritic cells: implications for vaccines. Trends Mol. Med. 7:388-94
20. Pulendran B, Palucka K, Banchereau J. 2001. Sensing pathogens and tuning immune responses. Science 293:253-56
21. Alter G, Malenfant JM, Delabre RM, Burgett NC, Yu XG, et al. 2004. Increased natural killer cell activity in viremic HIV-1 infection. J. Immunol. 173:5305-11
22. Wilson JD, Ogg GS, Allen RL, Davis C, Shaunak S, et al. 2000. Direct visualization of HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes during primary infection. AIDS 14:225-33
23. + lymphocytes. Science 283:857-60
24. Evans DT, O'Connor DH Jing P, Dzuris JL, Sidney J, et al. 1999. Virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses select for amino-acid variation in simian immunodeficiency virus Env and Nef. Nat. Med. 5:1270-76
25. Borrow P, Lewicki H, Wei X, Horwitz MS, Peffer N, et al. 1997. Antiviral pressure exerted by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) during primary infection demonstrated by rapid selection of CTL escape virus. Nat. Med. 3:205-11
26. + cytotoxic T lymphocyte response. J. Exp. Med. 200:1243-56
27. Price DA, Goulder PJ, Klenerman P, Sewell AK, Easterbrook PJ, et al. 1997. Positive selection of HIV-1 cytotoxic T lymphocyte escape variants during primary infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:1890-95
28. + T cells are detectable in most individuals with active HIV-1 infection, but decline with prolonged viral suppression. Nat. Med. 5:518-25
29. Rosenberg ES, Altfeld M, Poon SH, Phillips MN, Wilkes BM, et al. 2000. Immune control of HIV-1 after early treatment of acute infection. Nature 407:523-26
30. + T cell response to Epstein-Barr virus during primary and persistent infection. J. Exp. Med. 198:903-11
31. McMichael AJ, Rowland-Jones SL. 2001. Cellular immune responses to HIV. Nature 410:980-87
32. Shedlock DJ, Shen H. 2003. Requirement for CD4 T cell help in generating functional CD8 T cell memory. Science 300:337-39
33. Sun JC, Bevan MJ. 2003. Defective CD8 T cell memory following acute infection without CD4 T cell help. Science 300:339-42
34. + T cells after acute infection. Nat. Immunol. 5:927-33
35. Zajac AJ, Blattman JN, Murali-Krishna K, Sourdive DJ, Suresh M, et al. 1998. Viral immune evasion due to persistence of activated T cells without effector function. J. Exp. Med. 188:2205-13
36. + T cell depletion in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques. J. Exp. Med. 189:991-98
37. Phillips RE, Rowland-Jones S, Nixon DF, Gotch FM, Edwards JP, et al. 1991. Human immunodeficiency virus genetic variation that can escape cytotoxic T cell recognition. Nature 354:453-59
38. Kelleher AD, Long C, Holmes EC, Allen RL, Wilson J, et al. 2001. Clustered mutations in HIV-1 gag are consistently required for escape from HLA-B27-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. J. Exp. Med. 193:375-86
39. Goulder PJ, Phillips RE, Colbert RA, McAdam S, Ogg G, et al. 1997. Late escape from an immunodominant cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response associated with progression to AIDS. Nat. Med. 3:212-17
40. Moore CB, John M, James IR, Christiansen FT, Witt CS, Mallal SA. 2002. Evidence of HIV-1 adaptation to HLA-restricted immune responses at a population level. Science 296:1439-43
41. Goulder PJ, Altfeld MA, Rosenberg ES, Nguyen T, Tang Y, et al. 2001. Substantial differences in specificity of HIV-specific cytotoxic T cells in acute and chronic HIV infection. J. Exp. Med. 193:181-94
42. + T cells vary in differentiation phenotype in different persistent virus infections. Nat. Med. 8:379-85
43. Champagne P, Ogg GS, King AS, Knabenhans C, Ellefsen K, et al. 2001. Skewed maturation of memory HIV-specific CD8 T lymphocytes. Nature 410:106-11
44. + T cells produce antiviral cytokines but are impaired in cytolytic function. J. Exp. Med. 192:63-75
45. + T cells endowed with proliferative capacity. J. Exp. Med. 198:1909-22
46. Derdeyn CA, Decker JM, Bibollet-Ruche F, Mokili JL, Muldoon M, et al. 2004. Envelope-constrained neutralization-sensitive HIV-1 after heterosexual transmission. Science 303:2019-22
47. Wei X, Decker JM, Wang S, Hui H, Kappes JC, et al. 2003. Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 422:307-12
48. Richman DD, Wrin T, Little SJ, Petropoulos CJ. 2003. Rapid evolution of the neutralizing antibody response to HIV type 1 infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:4144-49
49. Friedrich TC, Dodds EJ, Yant LJ, Vojnov L, Rudersdorf R, et al. 2004. Reversion of CTL escape-variant immunodeficiency viruses in vivo. Nat. Med. 10:275-81
50. Goulder PJ, Watkins DI. 2004. HIV and SIVCTL escape: implications for vaccine design. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4:630-40
51. Alabi AS, Jaffar S, Ariyoshi K, Blanchard T, van der Loeff MS, et al. 2003. Plasma viral load, CD4 cell percentage. HLA and survival of HIV-1, HIV-2, and dually infected Gambian patients. AIDS 17:1513-20
52. Van Baalen CA, Schutten M, Huisman RC, Boers PH, Gruters RA, Osterhaus AD. 1998. Kinetics of antiviral activity by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 -specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and rapid selection of CTL escape virus in vitro. J. Virol. 72:6851-57
53. Girard M, Mahoney J, Wei Q, van der Ryst E, Muchmore E, et al. 1998. Genital infection of female chimpanzees with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14:1357-67
54. Fowke KR, Nagelkerke NJ, Kimani J, Simonsen JN, Anzala AO, et al. 1996. Resistance to HIV-1 infection among persistently seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 348:1347-51
55. Langlade-Demoyen P, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Ferchal F, Oksenhendler E. 1994. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) nef-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in noninfected heterosexual contact of HIV-infected patients. J. Clin. Invest. 93:1293-97
56. Rowland-Jones SL, McMichael A. 1995. Immune responses in HIV-exposed seronegatives: Have they repelled the virus? Curr. Opin. Immunol. 7:448-55
57. Rowland-Jones SL, Dong T, Fowke KR, Kimani J, Krausa P, et al. 1998. Cytotoxic T cell responses to multiple conserved HIV epitopes in HIV-resistant prostitutes in Nairobi. J. Clin. Invest. 102:1758-65
58. Goh WC, Markee J, Akridge RE, Meldorf M, Musey L, et al. 1999. Protection against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in persons with repeated exposure: evidence for T cell immunity in the absence of inherited CCR5 coreceptor defects. J. Infect. Dis. 179:548-57
59. Clerici M, Levin JM, Kessler HA, Harris A, Berzofsky JA, et al. 1994. HIV-specific T-helper activity in seronegative health care workers exposed to contaminated blood. JAMA 271:42-46
60. Hladik F, Desbien A, Lang J, Wang L, Ding Y, et al. 2003. Most highly exposed seronegative men lack HIV-1-specific, IFN-γ-secreting T cells. J. Immunol. 171:2671-83
61. + lymphocyte responses in the cervix of HIV-1-resistant prostitutes in Nairobi. J. Immunol. 164:1602-11
62. Mazzoli S, Trabattoni D, Lo Caputo S, Piconi S, Ble C, et al. 1997. HIV-specific mucosal and cellular immunity in HIV-seronegative partners of HIV-seropositive individuals. Nat. Med. 3:1250-57
63. Dorrell L, Hessell AJ, Wang M, Whittle H, Sabally S, et al. 2000. Absence of specific mucosal antibody responses in HIV-exposed uninfected sex workers from the Gambia. AIDS 14:1117-22
64. + responses. J. Clin. Invest. 107:341-49
65. Zhu T, Corey L, Hwangbo Y, Lee JM, Learn GH, et al. 2003. Persistence of extraordinarily low levels of genetically homogeneous human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in exposed seronegative individuals. J. Virol. 77:6108-16
66. Mitchell T, Risser R. 1992. Interference established in mice by infection with Friend murine leukemia virus. J. Virol. 66:5696-702
67. Parren PW, Marx PA, Hessell AJ, Luckay A, Harouse J, et al. 2001. Antibody protects macaques against vaginal challenge with a pathogenic R5 simian/human immunodeficiency virus at serum levels giving complete neutralization in vitro. J. Virol. 75:8340-47
68. Gauduin MC, Parren PW, Weir R, Barbas CF, Burton DR, Koup RA. 1997. Passive immunization with a human monoclonal antibody protects hu-PBL-SCID mice against challenge by primary isolates of HIV-1. Nat. Med. 3:1389-93
69. Mascola JR, Stiegler G, VanCott TC, Katinger H, Carpenter CB, et al. 2000. Protection of macaques against vaginal transmission of a pathogenic HIV-1/SIV chimeric virus by passive infusion of neutralizing antibodies. Nat. Med. 6:207-10
70. Veazey RS, Shattock RJ, Pope M, Kirijan JC, Jones J, et al. 2003. Prevention of virus transmission to macaque monkeys by a vaginally applied monoclonal antibody to HIV-1 gp120. Nat. Med. 9:343-46
71. Moore JP, Cao Y, Qing L, Sattentau QJ, Pyati J, et al. 1995. Primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are relatively resistant to neutralization by monoclonal antibodies to gp120, and their neutralization is not predicted by studies with monomeric gp120. J. Virol. 69:101-9
72. Pitisuttithum P, Berman PW, Phonrat B, Suntharasamai P, Raktham S, et al. 2004. Phase I/II study of a candidate vaccine designed against the B and E subtypes of HIV-1. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 37:1160-65
73. Desrosiers RC. 2004. Prospects for an AIDS vaccine. Nat. Med. 10:221-23
74. Kwong PD, Wyatt R, Robinson J, Sweet RW, Sodroski J, Hendrickson WA. 1998. Structure of an HIV gp120 envelope glycoprotein in complex with the CD4 receptor and a neutralizing human antibody. Nature 393:648-59
75. Wyatt R, Kwong PD, Desjardins E, Sweet RW, Robinson J, et al. 1998. The antigenic structure of the HIV gp120 envelope glycoprotein. Nature 393:705-11
76. Chen B, Vogan EM, Gong H, Skehel JJ, Wiley DC, Harrison SC. 2005. Structure of an unliganded simian immunodeficiency virus gp120 core. Nature 433:834-41
77. Kwong PD. 2005. Human immunodeficiency virus: refolding the envelope. Nature 433:815-16
78. Reitter JN, Means RE, Desrosiers RC. 1998. A role for carbohydrates in immune evasion in AIDS. Nat. Med. 4:679-84
79. Cardoso RM, Zwick MB, Stanfield RL, Kunert R, Binley JM, et al. 2005. Broadly neutralizing anti-HIV antibody 4E10 recognizes a helical conformation of a highly conserved fusion-associated motif in gp41. Immunity 22:163-73
80. Calarese DA, Scanlan CN, Zwick MB, Deechongkit S, Mimura Y, et al. 2003. Antibody domain exchange is an immunological solution to carbohydrate cluster recognition. Science 300:2065-71
81. Choe H, Li W, Wright PL, Vasilieva N, Venturi M, et al. 2003. Tyrosine sulfation of human antibodies contributes to recognition of the CCR5 binding region of HIV-1 gp120. Cell 114:161-70
82. Binley JM, Wrin T, Korber B, Zwick MB, Wang M, et al. 2004. Comprehensive cross-clade neutralization analysis of a panel of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 monoclonal antibodies. J. Virol. 78:13232-52
83. Moulard M, Phogat SK, Shu Y, Labrijn AF, Xiao X, et al. 2002. Broadly cross-reactive HIV-1-neutralizing human monoclonal Fab selected for binding to gp120-CD4-CCR5 complexes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:6913-18
84. 83a. Kwong PD, Doyle ML, Casper DJ, Cicala C, Leavitt SA, et al. 2002. HIV-1 evades antibody-mediated neutralization through conformational masking of receptor-binding sites. Nature 420:678-82
85. Scanlan CN, Pantophlet R, Wormald MR, Saphire EO, Stanfield R, et al. 2002. The broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2G12 recognizes a cluster of α1 ≥ 2 mannose residues on the outer face of gp120. J. Virol. 76:7306-21
86. 84a. Ofek G, Tang M, Sambor A, Katinger H, Mascola JR, et al. 2004. Structure and mechanistic analysis of the anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2F5 in complex with its gp41 epitope. J. Virol. 78:10724-37
87. Haynes BF, Fleming J, St. Clair WE, Katinger H, Stiegler G, et al. 2005. Cardiolipin polyspecific autoreactivity in two broadly neutralizing HIV-1 antibodies. Science 308:1906-8
88. + lymphocytes distinguishes between individuals with a high or low proviral load of human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1. J. Immunol. 173:5121-29
89. Guidotti LG, Borrow P, Brown A, McClary H, Koch R, Chisari FV. 1999. Noncytopathic clearance of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus from the hepatocyte. J. Exp. Med. 189:1555-64
90. + T-cell responses containing replication of the primary virus. Nature 420:434-39
91. + T cells suppress human immunodeficiency virus replication by inhibiting viral transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:2308-12
92. Amara RR, Villinger F, Altman JD, Lydy SL, O'Neil SP, et al. 2001. Control of a mucosal challenge and prevention of AIDS by a multiprotein DNA/MVA vaccine. Science 292:69-74
93. Barouch DH, Santra S, Schmitz JE, Kuroda MJ, Fu TM, et al. 2000. Control of viremia and prevention of clinical AIDS in rhesus monkeys by cytokine-augmented DNA vaccination. Science 290:486-92
94. Shiver JW, Fu TM, Chen L, Casimiro DR, Davies ME, et al. 2002. Replication-incompetent adenoviral vaccine vector elicits effective anti-immunodeficiency-virus immunity. Nature 415:331-35
95. Rose NF, Marx PA, Luckay A, Nixon DF, Moretto WJ, et al. 2001. An effective AIDS vaccine based on live attenuated vesicular stomatitis virus recombinants. Cell 106:539-49
96. Chen X, Scala G, Quinto I, Liu W, Chun TW, et al. 2001. Protection of rhesus macaques against disease progression from pathogenic SHIV-89.6PD by vaccination with phage-displayed HIV-1 epitopes. Nat. Med. 7:1225-31
97. Horton H, Vogel TU, Carter DK, Vielhuber K, Fuller DH, et al. 2002. Immunization of rhesus macaques with a DNA prime/modified vaccinia virus Ankara boost regimen induces broad simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-specific T-cell responses and reduces initial viral replication but does not prevent disease progression following challenge with pathogenic SIVmac239. J. Virol. 76:7187-202
98. Allen TM, Mortara L, Mothe BR, Liebl M, Jing P, et al. 2002. Tat-vaccinated macaques do not control simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239 replication. J. Virol. 76:4108-12
99. mac-induced immunodeficiency. J. Virol. 76:292-302
100. Vogel TU, Reynolds MR, Fuller DH, Vielhuber K, Shipley T, et al. 2003. Multispecific vaccine-induced mucosal cytotoxic T lymphocytes reduce acute-phase viral replication but fail in long-term control of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239. J. Virol. 77:13348-60
101. Barouch DH, Kunstman J, Kuroda MJ, Schmitz JE, Santra S, et al. 2002. Eventual AIDS vaccine failure in a rhesus monkey by viral escape from cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Nature 415:335-39
102. + T cell cross-priming via transfer of proteasome substrates. Science 304:1318-21
103. MacGregor RR, Boyer JD, Ugen KE, Lacy KE, Gluckman SJ, et al. 1998. First human trial of a DNA-based vaccine for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: safety and host response. J. Infect. Dis. 178:92-100
104. Maecker HT, Rinfret A, D'Souza P, Darden J, Roig E, et al. 2005. Standardization of cytokine flow cytometry assays. EMC Immunol. 6:13
105. MacGregor RR, Ginsberg R, Ugen KE, Baine Y, Kang CU, et al. 2002. T-cell responses induced in normal volunteers immunized with a DNA-based vaccine containing HIV-1 env and rev. AIDS 16:2137-43
106. Vuola JM, Keating S, Webster DP, Berthoud T, Dunachie S, et al. 2005. Differential immunogenicity of various heterologous prime-boost vaccine regimens using DNA and viral vectors in healthy volunteers. J. Immunol. 174:449-55
107. Edupuganti S, Weber D, Poole C. 2004. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses to canarypox vector-based HIV vaccines in HIV-seronegative individuals: a meta-analysis of published studies. HIV Clin. Trials 5:259-68
108. McShane H, Pathan AA, Sander CR, Keating SM, Gilbert SC, et al. 2004. Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing antigen 85 A boosts BCG-primed and naturally acquired antimycobacterial immunity in humans. Nat. Med. 10:1240-44
109. Harro C, Edupuganti S, Goepfert P, Priddya F, Lally M, et al. 2005. Safety and immunogenicity of Adenovirus Type 5 (Ad5) HIV-1 gag vaccines. 12th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect. Abstr. 504. http://www.retroconference.org/2005/
110. Sumida SM, Truitt DM, Lemckert AA, Vogels R, Custers JH, et al. 2005. Neutralizing antibodies to adenovirus serotype 5 vaccine vectors are directed primarily against the adenovirus hexon protein. J. Immunol. 174:7179-85
111. + T cell responses and antitumor effects generated by DNA vaccine administered through gene gun, biojector, and syringe. Vaccine 21:4036-42
112. Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao F, Gupta R, et al. 2000. Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science 288:1789-96
113. Leslie AJ, Pfafferott KJ, Chetty P, Draenert R, Addo MM, et al. 2004. HIV evolution: CTL escape mutation and reversion after transmission. Nat. Med. 10:282-89
114. Leslie A, Kavanagh D, Honeyborne I, Pfafferott K, Edwards C, et al. 2005. Transmission and accumulation of CTL escape variants drive negative associations between HIV polymorphisms and HLA. J. Exp. Med. 201:891-902
115. Peyerl FW, Bazick HS, Newberg MH, Barouch DH, Sodroski J, Letvin NL. 2004. Fitness costs limit viral escape from cytotoxic T lymphocytes at a structurally constrained epitope. J. Virol. 78:13901-10
116. Cocchi F, DeVico AL, Garzino-Demo A, Cara A, Gallo RC, Lusso P. 1996. The V3 domain of the HIV-1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein is critical for chemokine-mediated blockade of infection. Nat. Med. 2:1244-47
117. Graham BS. 2002. Clinical trials of HIV vaccines. Annu. Rev. Med. 53:207-21
118. Townsend AR, Rothbard J, Gotch FM, Bahadur G, Wraith D, McMichael AJ. 1986. The epitopes of influenza nucleoprotein recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes can be defined with short synthetic peptides. Cell 44:959-68
119. Lee JK, Stewart-Jones G, Dong T, Harlos K, Di Gleria K, et al. 2004. T cell cross-reactivity and conformational changes during TCR engagement. J. Exp. Med. 200:1455-66
120. + T-cell responses following acute HIV-1 infection. J. Virol. 76:8690-701
121. + responses to viruses: cell biology, cellular immunology, and mathematical models. Immunity 21:149-53
122. Kedl RM, Kappler JW, Marrack P. 2003. Epitope dominance, competition and T cell affinity maturation. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 15:120-27
123. Klenerman P, Rowland-Jones S, McAdam S, Edwards J, Daenke S, et al. 1994. Cytotoxic T-cell activity antagonized by naturally occurring HIV-1 Gag variants. Nature 369:403-7
124. Mongkolsapaya J, Dejnirattisai W, Xu XN, Vasanawathana S, Tangthawornchaikul N, et al. 2003. Original antigenic sin and apoptosis in the pathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Nat. Med. 9:921-27
125. + T cell responses induced by direct priming and cross-priming and moderate immunodominance disparities. J. Immunol. 174:3344-51
126. Autran B, Carcelain G, Combadiere B, Debre P. 2004. Therapeutic vaccines for chronic infections. Science 305:205-8
127. Dorrell L. 2005. Therapeutic immunisation strategies for the control of HIV-1. Expert Rev. Vaccines 4:513-20
128. Churdboonchart V, Sakondhavat C, Kulpradist S, Ayudthya BIN, Chandeying V, et al. 2000. A double-blind, adjuvant-controlled trial of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) immunogen (Remune) monotherapy in asymptomatic, HIV-1-infected Thai subjects with CD4-cell counts of > 300. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 7:728-33
129. Birx DL, Loomis-Price LD, Aronson N, Brundage J, Davis C, et al. 2000. Efficacy testing of recombinant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) gp160 as a therapeutic vaccine in early-stage HIV-1-infected volunteers. rgp160 Phase II Vaccine Investigators. J. Infect. Dis. 181:881-89
130. + cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activities in HIV-infected asymptomatic patients given recombinant gp160 vaccine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:11204-8
131. Goebel FD, Mannhalter JW, Belshe RB, Eibl MM, Grob PJ, et al. 1999. Recombinant gp160 as a therapeutic vaccine for HIV-infection: results of a large randomized, controlled trial. European Multinational IMMUNO AIDS Vaccine Study Group. AIDS 13:1461-68
132. Veenstra J, Williams IG, Colebunders R, Dorrell L, Tchamouroff SE, et al. 1996. Immunization with recombinant p17/p24:Ty virus-like particles in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. J. Infect. Dis. 174:862-66
133. Lindenburg CE, Stolte I, Langendam MW, Miedema F, Williams IG, et al. 2002. Long-term follow-up: no effect of therapeutic vaccination with HIV-1 p17/p24:Ty virus-like particles on HIV-1 disease progression. Vaccine 20:2343-47
134. Moss RB, Giermakowska WK, Savary JR, Theofan G, Daigle AE, et al. 1998. A primer on HIV type 1-specific immune function and REMUNE. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14 (Suppl. 2):S167-75
135. Kelleher AD, Roggensack M, Jaramillo AB, Smith DE, Walker A, et al. 1998. Safety and immunogenicity of a candidate therapeutic vaccine, p24 virus-like particle, combined with zidovudine, in asymptomatic subjects. Community HIV Research Network Investigators. AIDS 12:175-82
136. Ogg GS, Jin X, Bonhoeffer S, Moss P, Nowak MA, et al. 1999. Decay kinetics of human immunodeficiency virus-specific effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes after combination antiretroviral therapy. J. Virol. 73:797-800
137. Oxenius A, Price DA, Gunthard HF, Dawson SJ, Fagard C, et al. 2002. Stimulation of HIV-specific cellular immunity by structured treatment interruption fails to enhance viral control in chronic HIV infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:13747-52
138. Tryniszewska E, Nacsa J, Lewis MG, Silvera P, Montefiori D, et al. 2002. Vaccination of macaques with long-standing SIVmac251 infection lowers the viral set point after cessation of antiretroviral therapy. J. Immunol. 169:5347-57
139. Hel Z, Venzon D, Poudyal M, Tsai WP, Giuliani L, et al. 2000. Viremia control following antiretroviral treatment and therapeutic immunization during primary SIV251 infection of macaques. Nat. Med. 6:1140-46
140. Lisziewicz J, Trocio J, Xu J, Whitman L, Ryder A, et al. 2005. Control of viral rebound through therapeutic immunization with DermaVir. AIDS 19:35-43
141. Lu W, Wu X, Lu Y, Guo W, Andrieu JM. 2003. Therapeutic dendritic-cell vaccine for simian AIDS. Nat. Med. 9:27-32
142. Kahn JO, Cherng DW, Mayer K, Murray H, Lagakos S. 2000. Evaluation of HIV-1 immunogen, an immunologic modifier, administered to patients infected with HIV having 300 to 549 × 10(6)/L CD4 cell counts: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 284:2193-202
143. Kinloch S, Perrin L, Hoen B, Lampe F, Phillips A, Goh L, et al. 2004. Evaluation of 2 therapeutic vaccination regimens in HAART-treated primary HIV infection subjects following analytical treatment interruption: QUEST PROB3005, a randomized, placebo-controlled study. 11th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect. Abstr. 168
144. Dorrell L, Yang H, Iversen AK, Conlon C, Suttill A, et al. 2005. Therapeutic immunization of highly active antiretroviral therapy-treated HIV-1 infected patients: safety and immunogenicity of an HIV-1 gag/polyepitope DNA vaccine. AIDS 19:1321-23
145. Levy Y, Gahery-Segard H, Durier C, Lascaux AS, Goujard C, et al. 2005. Immunological and virological efficacy of a therapeutic immunization combined with interleukin-2 in chronically HIV-1 infected patients. AIDS 19:279-86
146. Kilby JM, Wang R, Mildvan D, Fischl M, Santana-Bagur J, et al. 2005. A phase II randomized partially blinded trial of antiretroviral therapy, HIV specific immunizations, and IL-2 cycles to promote efficient control of viral replication (ACTG A5024). 12th Conf. Retrovir. Oppor. Infect. Abstr. 525
147. Markowitz M, Jin X, Hurley A, Simon V, Ramratnam B, et al. 2002. Discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy commenced early during the course of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection, with or without adjunctive vaccination. J. Infect. Dis. 186:634-43
148. Harrer E, Bauerle M, Ferstl B, Chaplin P, Petzold B, et al. 2005. Therapeutic vaccination of HIV-1-infected patients on HAART with a recombinant HIV-1 nef-expressing MVA: safety, immunogenicity and influence on viral load during treatment interruption. Antivir. Ther. 10:285-300
149. Kundu SK, Engleman E, Benike C, Shapero MH, Dupuis M, et al. 1998. A pilot clinical trial of HIV antigen-pulsed allogeneic and autologous dendritic cell therapy in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14:551-60
150. Lu W, Arraes LC, Ferreira WT, Andrieu JM. 2004. Therapeutic dendritic-cell vaccine for chronic HIV-1 infection. Nat. Med. 10:1359-65
151. Stott J, Almond N. 1995. Assessing animal models of AIDS. Nat. Med. 1:295-97
152. Chan WL, Rodgers A, Grief C, Almond N, Ellis S, et al. 1995. Immunization with class I human histocompatibility leukocyte antigen can protect macaques against challenge infection with SIVmac-32H. AIDS 9:223-28
153. Bogers WM, Bergmeier LA, Ma J, Oostermeijer H, Wang Y, et al. 2004. A novel HIV-CCR5 receptor vaccine strategy in the control of mucosal SIV/HIV infection. AIDS 18:25-36
154. Liu R, Paxton WA, Choe S, Ceradini D, Martin SR, et al. 1996. Homozygous defect in HIV-1 coreceptor accounts for resistance of some multiply-exposed individuals to HIV-1 infection. Cell 86:367-77
155. Daniel MD, Kirchhoff F, Czajak SC, Sehgal PK, Desrosiers RC. 1992. Protective effects of a live attenuated SIV vaccine with a deletion in the nef gene. Science 258:1938-41
156. Almond N, Rose J, Sangster R, Silvera P, Stebbings R, et al. 1997. Mechanisms of protection induced by attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus. I. Protection cannot be transferred with immune serum. J. Gen. Virol. 78(Pt. 8):1919-22
157. + lymphocyte depletion on virus containment after simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac251 challenge of live attenuated SIVmac239Δ3-vaccinated rhesus macaques. J. Virol. 79:8131-41
158. Stebbings R, Stott J, Almond N, Hull R, Lines J, et al. 1998. Mechanisms of protection induced by attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus. II. Lymphocyte depletion does not abrogate protection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 14:1187-98
159. Wyand MS, Manson K, Montefiori DC, Lifson JD, Johnson RP, Desrosiers RC. 1999. Protection by live, attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus against heterologous challenge. J. Virol. 73:8356-63
160. Stebbings R, Berry N, Stott J, Hull R, Walker B, et al. 2004. Vaccination with live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus for 21 days protects against superinfection. Virology 330:249-60
161. Whatmore AM, Cook N, Hall GA, Sharpe S, Rud EW, Cranage MP. 1995. Repair and evolution of nef in vivo modulates simian immunodeficiency virus virulence. J. Virol. 69:5117-23
162. + T cell depletion during all stages of HIV disease occurs predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract. J. Exp. Med. 200:749-59
163. Xu XN, Screaton GR, Gotch FM, Dong T, Tan R, et al. 1997. Evasion of cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses by nef-dependent induction of Fas ligand (CD95L) expression on simian immunodeficiency virus-infected cells. J. Exp. Med. 186:7-16
164. Baba TW, Liska V, Khimani AH, Ray NB, Dailey PJ, et al. 1999. Live attenuated, multiply deleted simian immunodeficiency virus causes AIDS in infant and adult macaques. Nat. Med. 5:194-203
165. + lymphocytes in control of simian immunodeficiency virus infection and resistance to rechallenge after transient early antiretroviral treatment. J. Virol. 75:10187-99
166. Klausner RD, Fauci AS, Corey L, Nabel GJ, Gayle H, et al. 2003. Medicine. The need for a global HIV vaccine enterprise. Science 300:2036-39
167. Saphire EO, Parren PW, Pantophlet R, Zwick MB, Morris GM, et al. 2001. Crystal structure of a neutralizing human IGG against HIV-1: a template for vaccine design. Science 293:1155-59
168. Labrijn AF, Poignard P, Raja A, Zwick MB, Delgado K, et al. 2003. Access of antibody molecules to the conserved coreceptor binding site on glycoprotein gp120 is sterically restricted on primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Virol. 77:10557-65
169. Zwick MB, Komori HK, Stanfield RL, Church S, Wang M, et al. 2004. The long third complementarity-determining region of the heavy chain is important in the activity of the broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2F5. J. Virol. 78:3155-61