The agrarian problem in the early fourteenth century

Past and Present

Volumn 188, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 3-70

  Campbell, Bruce M S ^a  

^a QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 33645936460     PISSN: 00312746     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/pastj/gti017     Document Type: Article

References (475)

1. The literature on this growth phase is extensive. For a stimulating recent contribution, see Jack A. Goldstone, 'Efflorescences and Economic Growth in World History: Rethinking the "Rise of the West" and the Industrial Revolution', Jl World Hist., xiii (2002).
2. Bruce M. S. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 1250-1450 (Cambridge, 2000), 4-7
3. John H. Munro, 'Industrial Transformations in the North-West European Textile Trades, c. 1290-c. 1340: Economic Progress or Economic Crisis?', in Bruce M. S. Campbell (ed.), Before the Black Death: Studies in the 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century (Manchester, 1991)
4. John H. Munro, 'The "Industrial Crisis" of the English Textile Towns, c.1290-c.1330', in Michael Prestwich, Richard Britnell and Robin Frame (eds.), Thirteenth-Century England, vii, Proceedings of the Durham Conference, 1997 (Woodbridge, 1999)
5. Mark Bailey, 'Peasant Welfare in England, 1290-1348', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., li (1998).
6. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Population Pressure, Inheritance, and the Land Market in a Fourteenth-Century Peasant Community', in Richard M. Smith (ed.), Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle (Cambridge, 1984)
7. Phillipp R. Schofield, 'Dearth, Debt and the Local Land Market in a Late Thirteenth-Century Village Community', Agric. Hist. Rev., xlv (1997)
8. Bailey, 'Peasant Welfare in England'
9. Harry Kitsikopoulos, 'Standards of Living and Capital Formation in Pre-Plague England: A Peasant Budget Model', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., liii (2000).
10. For example Robert Brenner, 'Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe', Past and Present, no. 70 (Feb. 1976), repr. in T. H. Aston and C. H. E. Philpin (eds.), The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe (Cambridge, 1985) (subsequent references are to this version)
11. Wilhelm Abel, Agricultural Fluctuations in Europe from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Centuries, trans. Olive Ordish (London, 1980), 35-42 (German 1st edn, 1935)
12. M. M. Postan, 'Medieval Agrarian Society in its Prime: England', in M. M. Postan (ed.), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, i, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 1966)
13. George Grantham, 'Contra Ricardo: The Macroeconomics of Pre-Industrial Agrarian Economies', European Rev. Econ. Hist., iii (1999)
14. Munro, 'Industrial Transformations in the North-West European Textile Trades', 120-30
15. S. R. Epstein, Freedom and Growth: The Rise of States and Markets in Europe, 1300-1750 (London, 2000), 49-52.
16. For reviews of the debate, see S. H. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages: Class, Status and Gender (London and Basingstoke, 1995), 60-103, 127-43
17. John Hatcher and Mark Bailey, Modelling the Middle Ages: The History and Theory of England's Economic Development (Oxford, 2001).
18. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 22-4
19. M. G. L. Baillie, 'Putting Abrupt Environmental Change Back into Human History', in Kate Flint and Howard Morphy (eds.), Culture, Landscape, and the Environment: The Linacre Lectures, 1997-8 (Oxford, 2000).
20. Campbell (ed.), Before the Black Death.
21. Brenner, 'Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe'
22. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, ch. 1.
23. Postan, 'Medieval Agrarian Society in its Prime', 593, 603
24. Brenner, 'Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe', 33-4.
25. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 127-43
26. R. H. Hilton, 'Rent and Capital Formation in Feudal Society', in his The English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages: The Ford Lectures for 1973 and Related Studies (Oxford, 1975).
27. G. E. Fussell, 'Social Change but Static Technology: Rural England in the Fourteenth Century', History Studies, i (1968).
28. Postan, 'Medieval Agrarian Society in its Prime', 593, 603.
29. For a critique of Postan's estimate of the scale of villein rent payments, see Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 31-3.
30. Brenner, 'Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe', 33.
31. M. M. Postan and John Hatcher, 'Population and Class Relations in Feudal Society', Past and Present, no. 78 (Feb. 1978), repr. in Aston and Philpin (eds.), Brenner Debate, 65-6.
32. Ibid., 73.
33. Edward Miller and John Hatcher, Medieval England: Rural Society and Economic Change, 1086-1348 (London, 1978), 217 offer a similar interpretation.
34. For a contrary view, see Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture.
35. For example Maurice Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism (London, 1946)
36. J. Z. Titow, English Rural Society, 1200-1350 (London, 1969)
37. Michael Dunford and Diane Perrons, The Arena of Capital (London and Basingstoke, 1983), ch. 6
38. John E. Martin, Feudalism to Capitalism: Peasant and Landlord in English Agrarian Development (Atlantic Highlands, 1983)
39. Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in England, c. 1200-1520 (Cambridge, 1989), 135-9.
40. See also Georges Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century, trans. Howard B. Clarke (London, 1974), 162-8, 257-70
41. Guy Bois, The Crisis of Feudalism: Economy and Society in Eastern Normandy, c. 1300-1550 (Cambridge, 1984).
42. E. A. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England in the Thirteenth Century, ed. R. H. Hilton, trans. Ruth Kisch (Oxford, 1956), 69-131
43. John Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage: Towards a Reassessment', Past and Present, no. 90 (Feb. 1981), repr. in T. H. Aston (ed.), Landlords, Peasants and Politics in Medieval England (Cambridge, 1987), 251 (subsequent references are to this version).
44. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 198-203
45. Postan and Hatcher, 'Population and Class Relations in Feudal Society', 70-1
46. Junichi Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England: An Analysis of the Hundred Rolls of 1279-80', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., lv (2002), 599, 611.
47. Hatcher first made this key revisionist point in 1978: Postan and Hatcher, 'Population and Class Relations in Feudal Society', 74-6
48. Miller and Hatcher, Medieval England, 131.
49. He developed it further in a radical reassessment of serfdom and villeinage published in 1981: See Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage'.
50. Although initially received with scepticism, Hatcher's reinterpretation has steadily gained ground: For example, contrast Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, 137-8
51. with Christopher Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain, 850-1520 (New Haven and London, 2002), 182.
52. Systematic reanalysis of the 1279 Hundred Rolls has recently lent strong empirical support to Hatcher's case: Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 608-14.
53. Further endorsement is provided by a corresponding reanalysis of the Inquisitiones Post Mortem: See Section III below; Bruce M. S. Campbell and Ken Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death: An Atlas of Lay Lordship, Land, and Wealth, 1300-49 (Manchester, 2005).
54. See also R. M. Smith, 'Some Thoughts on "Hereditary" and "Proprietary" Rights in Land under Customary Law in Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Century England', Law and History Rev., i (1983), 118.
55. J. A. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System (Stroud, 1997), 125, 131.
56. J. Ambrose Raftis, Tenure and Mobility: Studies in the Social History of the Mediaeval English Village (Toronto, 1964), 21.
57. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 254-6
58. Richard Britnell, 'Commerce and Capitalism in Late Medieval England: Problems of Description and Theory', Jl Hist. Sociology, vi (1993), 364
59. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 3
60. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 62
61. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 152-96
62. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death.
63. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 279.
64. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 24, 62, 123.
65. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Agricultural Progress in Medieval England: Some Evidence from Eastern Norfolk', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxxvi (1983)
66. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Progressiveness and Backwardness in Thirteenth- and Early Fourteenth-Century English Agriculture: The Verdict of Recent Research', in Jean-Marie Duvosquel and Erik Thoen (eds.), Peasants and Townsmen in Medieval Europe: Studia in Honorem Adriaan Verhulst (Ghent, 1995).
67. Kathleen Biddick, 'Missing Links: Taxable Wealth, Markets and Stratification among English Medieval Peasants', Jl Interdisciplinary Hist., xviii (1987)
68. Bruce M. S. Campbell et al., A Medieval Capital and its Grain Supply: Agrarian Production and its Distribution in the London Region, c. 1300 (Historical Geography Research Ser., xxx, n.p., 1993)
69. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Economic Rent and the Intensification of English Agriculture, 1086-1350', in Grenville Astill and John Langdon (eds.), Medieval Farming and Technology: The Impact of Agricultural Change in Northwest Europe (Leiden, 1997).
70. Recent surveys include: R. H. Britnell, The Commercialisation of English Society, 1000-1500 (Cambridge, 1993), 140-7
71. James Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets: Inland Trade in Medieval England, 1150-1350 (New York, 1997)
72. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, ch. 5
73. Phillipp R. Schofield, Peasant and Community in Medieval England, 1200-1500 (Basingstoke, 2003).
74. R. H. Britnell, 'Specialization of Work in England, 1100-1300', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., liv (2001).
75. Epstein, Freedom and Growth, 49-52.
76. Arthur Seldon and F. G. Pennance, Everyman's Dictionary of Economics: An Alphabetical Exposition of Economic Concepts and their Application, revised edn (London, 1975), 163 ('Ground Rent'), 212 ('Leasehold'), 286 ('Rack Rent').
77. This compares with the figure of £764,300 estimated by Nicholas Mayhew, 'Modelling Medieval Monetisation', in Richard H. Britnell and Bruce M. S. Campbell (eds.), A Commercialising Economy: England, 1086 to c. 1300 (Manchester, 1995), 57-60.
78. Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, ch. 2.
79. For justification of this population estimate, see Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 399-410.
80. See also Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson, 'Revising England's Social Tables, 1688-1812', Explorations in Econ. Hist., xix (1982), 393
81. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541-1871: A Reconstruction (Cambridge, 1989), 208-9.
82. Mayhew, 'Modelling Medieval Monetisation', 58.
83. Kitsikopoulos, 'Standards of Living and Capital Formation in Pre-Plague England', 237-61. In fact, Kitsikopoulos reckons that a minimum of eighteen acres of arable were required to meet subsistence requirements.
84. Britnell, 'Specialization of Work in England', 8-10.
85. Christopher Dyer, 'How Urbanized Was Medieval England?', in Duvosquel and Thoen (eds.), Peasants and Townsmen in Medieval Europe; D. M. Palliser (ed.), The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, i (Cambridge, 2000), 4, 103-4, 275.
86. Lindert and Williamson, 'Revising England's Social Tables', 396-7.
87. Graeme Donald Snooks, 'The Dynamic Role of the Market in the Anglo-Norman Economy and Beyond, 1086-1300', in Britnell and Campbell (eds.), Commercialising Economy, 49-53
88. Mayhew, 'Modelling Medieval Monetisation', 57-60.
89. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 399-410.
90. The estimate of urban income is that made by Mayhew, 'Modelling Medieval Monetisation', 58.
91. Ibid.
92. Gregory Clark, personal communication.
93. Karl Marx inferred that since surplus labour under feudalism is based on a low level of productivity, 'it will naturally absorb a much smaller proportion of the direct producer's total labour than ... under the capitalist mode of production': Capital, iii, in his Collected Works, xxxvii (London, 1998), 780. I am grateful to S. H. Rigby for this reference.
94. Postan, 'Medieval Agrarian Society in its Prime', 593.
95. For a critique of Postan's estimate of the scale of villein rent payments, see Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 31-3.
96. Rosamond Faith, The English Peasantry and the Growth of Lordship (Leicester, 1997)
97. William E. Kapelle, The Norman Conquest of the North: The Region and its Transformation, 1000-1135 (London, 1979), 176-90.
98. Marilyn Ruth Livingstone, 'The Nonae: The Records of the Taxation of the Ninth in England, 1340-41', 2 vols. (Queen's Univ. of Belfast Ph.D. thesis, 2003), ii, 250-1. I am grateful to Marilyn Livingstone for permission to cite this figure.
99. The IPMs used are those listed in Calendar of Inquisitions Post Mortem and Other Analogous Documents Preserved in the Public Record Office (London, 1898-), vols. iv-ix (for the reigns of Edward I to Edward III).
100. Details of the database are given in Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death. Creation and analysis of the database were funded by the Leverhulme Trust and The Queen's University of Belfast. The archival work was undertaken by Roger Dickinson and Marilyn Livingstone, and the computer analysis was by Ken Bartley. For a detailed discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the IPMs as a source, see ibid.
101. John Richard Humpidge Moorman, Church Life in England in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1945), 42. I am grateful to Barbara Harvey for this reference.
102. R. H. Hilton, 'Lord and Peasant in Staffordshire in the Middle Ages', North Staffs. Jl Field Studies, x (1970)
103. repr. in his English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages, 231-4.
104. Peter Coss, The Origins of the English Gentry (Cambridge, 2003), 83-4.
105. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 344-50
106. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages. 104-10.
107. 'economic rent, long intercepted and shared, through the fixity of customary tenure, between tenants and landlord under the more elastic adjustments of leasehold and competitive fines, begins to drain itself into the pockets of the latter': R. H. Tawney, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1912), 1-2.
108. See also Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England: The Transformation of the Agrarian Economy, 1500-1850 (Cambridge, 1996), 151-8
109. Margaret Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1974), Pt 1
110. Jane Whittle, The Development of Agrarian Capitalism: Land and Labour in Norfolk, 1440-1580 (Oxford, 2000), 64-82.
111. Edward Miller, The Abbey and Bishopric of Ely: The Social History of an Ecclesiastical Estate from the Tenth Century to the Early Fourteenth Century (Cambridge, 1951), 135-6
112. R. H. Hilton, 'Gloucester Abbey Leases of the Late Thirteenth Century', Univ. Birmingham Hist. Jl, iv (1953)
113. repr. in his English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages
114. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 259-65
115. Sandra Raban, A Second Domesday? The Hundred Rolls of 1279-80 (Oxford, 2004), 136-7.
116. Tawney, Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, 1-2.
117. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599, 611.
118. Ibid., 609.
119. For a specific example, see Titow, English Rural Society, 151-60.
120. Kanzaka, 'Vilein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599, 602-3, 611.
121. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 264-5.
122. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 610-11.
123. Ibid., 612.
124. Marjorie Keniston McIntosh, Autonomy and Community: The Royal Manor of Havering, 1200-1500 (Cambridge, 1986), 24-5, 90-103
125. Charles R. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Leicester, 1979), ch. 6.
126. Raban, Second Domesday?, 137.
127. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599.
128. Ibid., 599, 610-12.
129. Zvi Razi, 'The Struggles between the Abbots of Halesowen and their Tenants in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries', in T. H. Aston et al. (eds.), Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton (Cambridge, 1983)
130. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 105-7.
131. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 56.
132. As exemplified by William Hassall and Jacques Beauroy (eds.), Lordship and Landscape in Norfolk, 1250-1350: The Early Records of Holkham (Brit. Acad., Records of Social and Econ. Hist., new ser., xx, Oxford, 1993).
133. Exceptions are: Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 126-51
134. Edmund King, England, 1175-1425 (London, 1979), 50-3
135. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 34-7.
136. For a recent review of an extensive and growing historiography, see Zvi Razi and Richard Smith (eds.), Medieval Society and the Manor Court (Oxford, 1996).
137. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England
138. J. B. Harley, 'Population Trends and Agricultural Developments from the Warwickshire Hundred Rolls of 1279', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xi (1958-9)
139. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'The Complexity of Manorial Structure in Medieval Norfolk: A Case Study', Norfolk Archaeology, xxxix (1986)
140. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England'.
141. See also Sandra Raban, 'The Making of the 1279-80 Hundred Rolls', Hist. Research, lxx (1997)
142. Raban, Second Domesday?
143. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death, ch. 14.
144. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 195
145. R. H. Hilton, 'The Content and Sources of English Agrarian History before 1500', Agric. Hist. Rev., iii (1955), 14.
146. 'Here some five or six times as much tenant land was held freehold as was contained in servile tenures': The Survey of Archbishop Pecham's Kentish Manors, 1283-85, ed. and trans. Kenneth Witney (Kent Records, xxviii, Maidstone, 2000), p. lxxii (see also pp. xlvii, liii-lxi).
147. 'We are left with a very definite impression that on small manors, the demesne was much less linked up with villein land, and occupied a more independent position in the manorial economy, than on large manors': Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 101.
148. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 595, 611.
149. Brian K. Roberts and Stuart Wrathmell, An Atlas of Rural Settlement in England (London, 2000).
150. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599, 611.
151. Calculated from Kanzaka's data: Ibid., 599, 602-3, 611.
152. Cf. the distribution of nucleated villages as reconstructed in Roberts and Wrathmell, Atlas of Rural Settlement in England, and reproduced in Map 3.
153. Marjorie Chibnall, Anglo-Norman England, 1066-1166 (Oxford, 1986), 184-5, 191.
154. R. B. Dobson, The Peasants' Revolt of 1381, 2nd edn (London, 1983), pp. xli-xlii, 38-41.
155. See Table 4.
156. Kapelle, Norman Conquest of the North, 176-90
157. Richard Lomas, North-East England in the Middle Ages (Edinburgh, 1992), 172-6.
158. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599, 611.
159. Ibid., 599.
160. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 103-6, 109-13, 130
161. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 598-608.
162. Calculated from Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 91, 109.
163. Raftis, Tenure and Mobility, 77-92
164. P. D. A. Harvey (ed.), The Peasant Land Market in Medieval England (Oxford, 1984), 22-3 ('Introduction').
165. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 251
166. King, England, 50.
167. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 251.
168. H. L. Gray, 'The Commutation of Villein Services in England before the Black Death', Eng. Hist. Rev., xxix (1914)
169. M. M. Postan, 'The Chronology of Labour Services', Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc., 4th ser., xx (1937)
170. repr. in W. E. Minchinton (ed.), Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbot, 1968), i
171. and in M. M. Postan, Essays on Medieval Agriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy (Cambridge, 1973).
172. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 602-3.
173. Ibid.
174. Gray, 'Commutation of Villein Services in England before the Black Death'
175. M. M. Postan, The Famulus: The Estate Labourer in the XIIth and XIIIth Centuries (Econ. Hist. Rev. Supplements, ii, Cambridge, 1954)
176. Postan, 'Chronology of Labour Services'.
177. On the supervision costs of customary labour, see Christopher Thornton, 'The Determinants of Land Productivity on the Bishop of Winchester's Demesne of Rimpton, 1208 to 1403', in Bruce M. S. Campbell and Mark Overton (eds.), Land, Labour and Livestock: Historical Studies in European Agricultural Productivity (Manchester, 1991), 201-7.
178. On the relative efficiencies of customary and waged labour, see David Stone, 'The Productivity of Hired and Customary Labour: Evidence from Wisbech Barton in the Fourteenth Century', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., 1 (1997).
179. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 75.
180. On the modest contribution of customary ploughing services to demesne ploughing, see Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 124-5, 133-4.
181. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 284-92
182. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 2-3
183. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death.
184. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 420-1
185. The Pipe Roll of the Bishopric of Winchester, 1301-2, ed. and trans. Mark Page (Hampshire Record Ser., xiv, Winchester, 1996)
186. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'A Unique Estate and a Unique Source: The Winchester Pipe Rolls in Perspective'
187. and Christopher C. Thornton, 'The Level of Land Productivity at Taunton, Somerset, 1283-1348', both in Richard Britnell (ed.), The Winchester Pipe Rolls: Studies in Medieval English Economy and Society (Woodbridge, 2003)
188. Ian Keil, 'The Estates of Glastonbury Abbey in the Later Middle Ages: A Study in Administration and Economic Change' (Univ. of Bristol Ph.D. thesis, 1964)
189. Ian Keil, 'Farming on the Dorset Estates of Glastonbury Abbey in the Early Fourteenth Century', Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist. and Archaeol. Soc., lxxxvii (1966).
190. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 109.
191. Ibid., 107-10.
192. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, ch. 7
193. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 137-45.
194. Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, 37-40
195. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 148-9
196. Peter Coss, Lordship, Knighthood and Locality: A Study in English Society, c. 1180-c.1280 (Cambridge, 1991), ch. 8
197. Coss, Origins of the English Gentry, 82-7.
198. Kosminsky, Studies in the Agrarian History of England, 338-52
199. H. E. Hallam, 'The Life of the People', in H. E. Hallam (ed.), The Agrarian History of England and Wales, ii, 1042-1350 (Cambridge, 1988), 845-53
200. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 104-19
201. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 178-82.
202. Hilton 'Rent and Capital Formation in Feudal Society', 199-200
203. Hilton, 'Lord and Peasant in Staffordshire in the Middle Ages', 231-6.
204. Miller and Hatcher, Medieval England, 45-9.
205. Christopher Dyer, 'Changes in the Link between Families and Land in the West Midlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries', in Smith (ed.), Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, 306
206. Zvi Razi, Life, Marriage and Death in a Medieval Parish: Economy, Society and Demography in Halesowen, 1270-1400 (Cambridge, 1980), 29-30
207. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 109.
208. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 141.
209. L. R. Poos and R. M. Smith, '"Shades Still on the Window": A Riposte', Law and History Rev., iv (1986)
210. repr. in Razi and Smith (eds.), Medieval Society and the Manor Court, 345-6
211. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 612-14.
212. Martin Feudalism to Capitalism, 42
213. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 141.
214. 'Villeins held land on highly advantageous tenure, even if tallage, heriot, and merchet are taken into account': Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 613.
215. Pipe Roll of the Bishopric of Winchester, ed. and trans. Page, p. xxii.
216. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 266-7
217. Kathleen Biddick, The Other Economy: Pastoral Husbandry on a Medieval Estate (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989), 58-60.
218. But see the criticism of Hilton, 'Lord and Peasant in Staffordshire in the Middle Ages', 233, who considers banalities to be seriously undervalued by the IPMs. Nevertheless, systematic analysis of the component value of the temporalities of religious houses in the diocese of Norwich, as recorded by the Taxatio of 1291, endorses the results from the IPMs: It confirms that the income from banalities was inferior to that from demesne lands and the rents of free and servile land. I am grateful to Richard Holtz for this information.
219. 'older notions of harshly exploitative ecclesiastical landlords can no longer be sustained': Raban, Second Domesday?, 137.
220. For the situation after 1375, when rack rents began to sink below customary rents, see Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'The Land', in Mark Ormrod and Rosemary Horrox (eds.), A Social History of England, 1200-1500, Cambridge Univ. Press, forthcoming.
221. Britnell, Commercialisation of English Society
222. Robert Brenner, 'The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism', Past and Present, no. 97 (Nov. 1982)
223. repr. in Aston and Philpin (eds.), Brenner Debate, 248-9.
224. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture.
225. Richard Holt, The Mills of Medieval England (Oxford, 1988)
226. Niall Brady, 'The Gothic Barn of England: Icon of Prestige and Authority', in Elizabeth Bradford Smith and Michael Wolfe (eds.), Technology and Resource Use in Medieval Europe: Cathedrals, Mills, and Mines (Aldershot, 1997)
227. R. A. L. Smith, 'Marsh Embankment and Sea Defence in Medieval Kent', Econ. Hist. Rev., x (1940)
228. H. E. Hallam, Settlement and Society: A Study of the Early Agrarian History of South Lincolnshire (Cambridge, 1965).
229. D. F. Harrison, 'Bridges and Economic Development, 1300-1800', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xlv (1992)
230. R. H. Britnell, 'The Proliferation of Markets in England, 1200-1349', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxxiv (1981)
231. Richard H. Britnell, 'Commercialisation and Economic Development in England, 1000-1300', in Britnell and Campbell (eds.), Commercialising Economy, 17-19
232. Maurice Beresford, New Towns of the Middle Ages: Town Plantation in England, Wales and Gascony (London, 1967).
233. For example Elizabeth Rutledge, 'Immigration and Population Growth in Early Fourteenth-Century Norwich: Evidence from the Tithing Roll', Urban History Yearbook 1988.
234. Most recently, Jane Whittle and Margaret Yates, 'Pays réel or pays légal? Contrasting Patterns of Land Tenure and Social Structure in Eastern Norfolk and Western Berkshire, 1450-1600', Agric. Hist. Rev., xlviii (2000).
235. Zvi Razi, 'Family, Land and the Village Community in Later Medieval England', Past and Present, no. 93 (Nov. 1981)
236. repr. in Aston (ed.), Landlords, Peasants and Politics in Medieval England.
237. 'The customary conditions of tenure of the unfree made them a protected, even privileged, tenurial group': Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Vileinage', 268. 'Relatively few outsiders entered Ramsey customary lands because local tenants themselves could generate adequate capital':
238. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 125.
239. H. S. A. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants in Early Medieval England', in Razi and Smith (eds.), Medieval Society and the Manor Court, 539-60
240. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 34-5.
241. Edwin Brezette DeWindt, Land and People in Holywell-cum-Needingworth: Structures of Tenure and Patterns of Social Organization in an East Midlands Village, 1252-1457 (Toronto, 1972), 242-63, 281.
242. For instance, Robert Oldman served Merton College Oxford as reeve of its manor of Cuxham in Oxfordshire for thirty-eight years: See P. D. A. Harvey, A Medieval Oxfordshire Village: Cuxham, 1240-1400 (London, 1965), 63-74.
243. Tawney, Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, 83.
244. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 268
245. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 125, 131.
246. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, chs. 1-2.
247. Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (Oxford, 1990), 32.
248. John Langdon, Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge, 1986), 253, 255, 283-4.
249. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death.
250. Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, ch. 6.
251. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599.
252. 'Villeins could not sublet legally. What they did was to sublet illegally, usually for short periods. Even the Hundred Rolls will not tell us about this illegal land-market. We can only learn about it by studying the lists of convictions in the records of the manor courts': R. H. Hilton, Social Structure of Rural Warwickshire in the Middle Ages (Dugdale Soc., Occasional Papers, ix, Oxford, 1954),
253. repr. in his English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages, 131.
254. Kanzaka, 'Vlllein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 598-600
255. see also Ralph Evans, 'Merton College's Control of its Tenants at Thorncroft, 1270-1349', in Razi and Smith (eds.), Medieval Society and the Manor Court, 236-7.
256. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 28-33.
257. Razi, Life, Marriage and Death in a Medieval Parish, 94-8.
258. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 535-6.
259. Harvey, Medieval Oxfordshire Village, 134-5.
260. J. Z. Titow, 'Some Differences between Manors and their Effects on the Condition of the Peasant in the Thirteenth Century', Agric. Hist. Rev., x (1962), 6-13.
261. Marriage with widows was also a common means of acquiring land on Crowland Abbey's Cambridgeshire manor of Cottenham: See Jack Ravensdale, 'Population Changes and the Transfer of Customary Land on a Cambridgeshire Manor in the Fourteenth Century', in Smith (ed.), Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle.
262. Titow, 'Some Differences between Manors and their Effects on the Conditions of the Peasantry', 4-6.
263. Harley, 'Population Trends and Agricultural Developments from the Warwickshire Hundred Rolls of 1279'
264. Trevor John, 'Population Change in Medieval Warwickshire: Domesday Book to the Hundred Rolls of 1279-1280', Local Population Studies, lix (1997).
265. E. M. Carus-Wilson, 'The First Half-Century of the Borough of Stratford-upon-Avon', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xviii (1965)
266. R. H. Hilton, A Medieval Society: The West Midlands at the End of the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1966), 183-7
267. Christopher Dyer, 'Medieval Stratford: A Successful Small Town', in Robert Bearman (ed.), The History of an English Borough: Stratford-upon-Avon, 1196-1996 (Stroud, 1997), 44, 48.
268. Harley, 'Population Trends and Agricultural Developments from the Warwickshire Hundred Rolls of 1279'
269. John, 'Population Change in Medieval Warwickshire'.
270. Survey of Archbishop Pecham's Kentish Manors, ed. and trans. Witney, pp. lxxvii-lxxx.
271. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 599.
272. Evans, 'Merton College's Control of its Tenants at Thorncroft', 236-7.
273. Hallam (ed.), Agrarian History of England and Wales, ii, 594-634.
274. Rev. W. Hudson, 'Traces of Primitive Agricultural Organization, as Suggested by a Survey of the Manor of Martham, Norfolk (1101-1292)', Trans. Roy. Hist. Soc., 4th ser., i (1918)
275. David C. Douglas, The Social Structure of Medieval East Anglia (Oxford Studies in Social and Legal Hist., ix, Oxford, 1927), 17-67, 205-7.
276. Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 138-51
277. Richard M. Smith, 'Families and their Land in an Area of Partible Inheritance: Redgrave, Suffolk, 1260-1320', in Smith (ed.), Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, 139-49
278. Mark Bailey, A Marginal Economy? East-Anglian Breckland in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1989), 48-51.
279. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Commonfields on a Norfolk Manor', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxxiii (1980).
280. On the profits to be made from licensing inter-peasant land transfers, see Smith, 'Some Thoughts on "Hereditary" and "Proprietary" Rights', 115-17.
281. See also P. R. Hyams, 'The Origins of a Peasant Land Market in England', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxiii (1970)
282. Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 19-28 ('Introduction').
283. Explicit evidence of the purchase price of small plots of land is extremely rare. In the Isle of Ely the price of arable ranged between 15s. and 44s. per acre: See Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 131 n.
284. In Suffolk, on the abbey of Bury St Edmunds' manor of Rickinghall in the early fourteenth century, villein land 'fetched prices varying from 24s. to 44s. per acre, and as such represented an asset that possessed a "real value" greatly in excess of "customary charges" whether placed upon inheritances at 2s. per acre or on inter vivos transactions at 4s. per acre': Poos and Smith, '"Shades Still on the Window"', 346-8. Prices in the fertile and densely populated east of Norfolk were even higher. In 1263-4 the prior of Norwich spent 43s. 4d. per acre at Plumstead and 59s. 3d. per acre at Hemsby purchasing small amounts of arable: Norfolk Record Office, Norwich, DCN 1/1/1. In 1284-5 an average price of 34s. 9d. per acre was paid for a further eight separate small purchases of land in four vills: Norfolk Record Office, DCN 1/1/8.
285. Schofield, Peasant and Community in Medieval England, 144-6.
286. For an analysis of inter-peasant credit arrangements at Writtle in Essex at the end of the fourteenth century, see Elaine Clark, 'Debt Litigation in a Late Medieval English Vill', in J. A. Raftis (ed.), Pathways to Medieval Peasants (Toronto, 1981).
287. Evidence of the high interest rates prevailing in the early fourteenth century is given in Epstein, Freedom and Growth, 19-23.
288. Campbell, 'Population Pressure, Inheritance, and the Land Market'
289. Schofield, 'Dearth, Debt and the Local Land Market'.
290. Alan R. H. Baker, 'Open Fields and Partible Inheritance on a Kent Manor', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xvii (1964).
291. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Commonfields on a Norfolk Manor', 186-8.
292. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Commonfields on a Norfolk Manor', 186-8.
293. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'The Extent and Layout of Commonfields in Eastern Norfolk', Norfolk Archaeology, xxxviii (1981).
294. Alfred N. May, 'An Index of Thirteenth-Century Peasant Impoverishment? Manor Court Fines', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxvi (1973)
295. J. B. Post, 'Manorial Amercements and Peasant Poverty', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxviii (1975)
296. Smith, 'Some Thoughts on "Hereditary" and "Proprietary" Rights', 105-6.
297. David L. Farmer, 'Prices and Wages', in Hallam (ed.), Agrarian History of England and Wales, ii, 791.
298. The fate of land tenure and farm structure in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Ireland provides a clear analogy: See K. Theodore Hoppen, Ireland since 1800: Conflict and Conformity (London, 1989), 35-8
299. F. M. L. Thompson and D. Tierney, 'Introduction', in General Report on the Gosford Estates in County Armagh, 1821, by William Greig (Belfast, 1976).
300. Historiographically, too, landlords have borne the brunt of the blame for the worsening situation on the land, although this view derives its ideological inspiration from nationalism rather than Marxism and recently has been subject to much revision: S. J. Connolly, 'Eighteenth-Century Ireland', in D. George Boyce and Alan O'Day (eds.), The Making of Modern Irish History: Revisionism and the Revisionist Controversy (London, 1996).
301. Entry fines, pleas of debt and suits over broken agreements occasionally hint at the sums involved: See Raftis, Tenure and Mobility, 75-7, 80-1.
302. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 559-62
303. Smith, 'Some Thoughts on "Hereditary" and "Proprietary" Rights', 115-18; see also n. 154 above.
304. Letting and subletting property for profit was normal in towns at this time: See Elizabeth Rutledge, 'Landlords and Tenants: Housing and the Rented Property Market in Early Fourteenth-Century Norwich', Urban Hist., xxii (1995)
305. Richard Goddard, Lordship and Medieval Urbanisation: Coventry, 1043-1344 (Woodbridge, 2004), 234-46.
306. Tawney, Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, 80-1
307. George C. Homans, English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1941), 202, 210-12
308. M. M. Postan, 'The Charters of the Villeins', in his Essays on Medieval Agriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy, 121
309. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 536-7.
310. Richard M. Smith, 'Some Issues Concerning Families and their Property in Rural England, 1250-1800', in Smith (ed.), Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, 23-7
311. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 559-60.
312. In the analogous circumstances of early nineteenth-century Ireland land was typically let to the highest bidder at either a rack or an exorbitant rent: Joel Mokyr, Why Ireland Starved: A Quantitative and Analytical History of the Irish Economy, 1800-1850 (London, 1985), 126-7.
313. In the case of conacre, let for eleven months in return for labour, the lessors were typically tenant farmers: See Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland: A New Economic History, 1780-1939 (Oxford, 1994), 130.
314. Edward Britton, The Community of the Vill: A Study in the History of the Family and Village Life in Fourteenth-Century England (Toronto, 1977), 82-6, 94-130
315. R. M. Smith, 'Kin and Neighbors in a Thirteenth-Century Suffolk Community', Jl Family Hist., iv (1979)
316. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 47-8
317. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 539-60.
318. 'Upon Ramsey manors it was a common custom to permit subletting of the villein tenement, or parts of the tenement, for one, two, or three years': Raftis, Tenure and Mobility, 74
319. DeWindt, Land and People in Holywell-cum-Needingworth, 47-8.
320. See also Hilton, English Peasantry in the Later Middle Ages, 131
321. Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 22-7 ('Introduction')
322. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages, 143, 175
323. Schofield, Peasant and Community in Medieval England, 20.
324. Tim Lomas, 'South-East Durham: Late Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries', in Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 300.
325. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 535
326. Barbara Harvey, Westminster Abbey and its Estates in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1977), 206-13
327. Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 346-8 ('Conclusion').
328. Paul Vinogradoff, Villainage in England: Essays in English Mediaeval History (Oxford, 1892), 330-2
329. Postan, 'Charters of the Villeins', 122
330. John Hatcher, Rural Economy and Society in the Duchy of Cornwall, 1300-1500 (Cambridge, 1970), 16
331. Andrew Jones, 'Caddington, Kensworth, and Dunstable in 1297', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxxii (1979), 316
332. Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 24 ('Introduction')
333. Janet Williamson, 'Norfolk: Thirteenth Century', in Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 54.
334. A. Elizabeth Levett, 'The Black Death on the Estates of the See of Winchester', in Paul Vinogradoff (ed.), Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History, v (Oxford, 1916), 28-9
335. B. M. S. Campbell, 'Field Systems in Eastern Norfolk during the Middle Ages: A Study with Particular Reference to the Demographic and Agrarian Changes of the Fourteenth Century' (Univ. of Cambridge Ph.D. thesis, 1975), 128-31
336. Campbell, 'Population Pressure, Inheritance, and the Land Market', 120 n.
337. Rosamond Faith, 'Berkshire: Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries', in Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 125-6.
338. Until 1355 on the manors of St Albans Abbey tenants were entitled to lease land without enrolment, provided that the lease was for less than two years: Ada Elizabeth Levett, Studies in Manorial History (Oxford, 1938), 188.
339. A similar custom prevailed on Ramsey Abbey's Huntingdonshire manors: J. Ambrose Raftis, Warboys: Two Hundred Years in the Life of an English Medieval Village (Toronto, 1974), 167
340. Andrew Jones, 'Bedfordshire: Fifteenth Century', in Harvey (ed.), Peasant Land Market in Medieval England, 193.
341. On the leasing of villein land to freemen, see Raftis, Tenure and Mobility, 77-80
342. DeWindt, Land and People in Holywell-cum-Needingworth, 48.
343. J. A. Raftis, A Small Town in Late Medieval England: Godmanchester, 1278-1400 (Toronto, 1982), 119-33.
344. Hilton, Social Structure of Rural Warwickshire in the Middle Ages, 130-1
345. Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 132-3
346. Jones, 'Caddington, Kensworth, and Dunstable in 1297', 322-4.
347. M. A. Barg, 'The Social Structure of Manorial Freeholders: An Analysis of the Hundred Rolls of 1279', Agric. Hist. Rev., xxxix (1991)
348. J. Ambrose Raftis, 'The Land Market at Godmanchester, c. 1300', Mediaeval Studies, 1 (1988), 330-2.
349. See also Hatcher, Rural Economy and Society in the Duchy of Cornwall, 252-3
350. Survey of Archbishop Pecham's Kentish Manors, ed. and trans. Witney, pp. xlvii-xlviii.
351. On the merits and demerits of subletting through 'middlemen', see David Dickson, 'Middlemen', in Thomas Bartlett and D. W. Hayton (eds.), Penal Era and Golden Age: Essays in Irish History, 1690-1800 (Belfast, 1979).
352. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England', 610-12.
353. Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, 120.
354. For example H. E. Hallam, 'Some Thirteenth-Century Censuses', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., x (1957-8), 351-2.
355. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death
356. Campbell, 'Complexity of Manorial Structure in Medieval Norfolk'.
357. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 403. Postan, who championed a high population estimate of 6 million, stressed the existence in many villages of 'a category of men who were tenants of the lords' tenants'
358. Postan, 'Charters of the Villeins', 121. For the tendency of subletting to increase with the growth of population
359. see Rutledge, 'Landlords and Tenants', 11-14.
360. McIntosh, Autonomy and Community, 109-11.
361. On undersettles, see also Homans, English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century, 211-12
362. Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 145
363. Postan, 'Charters of the Villeins', 121.
364. Similar chains are also a feature of the Godmanchester subtenant listings (Raftis, Small Town in Late Medieval England, 123), and the 1279 Hundred Roll return for Hevingham in Norfolk. For example, at Hevingham the free tenant Henry le Blunt held one acre from William son of Walter, who held it from William le Cat, who held it from Henry de London, who held it from Thomas Jurdon of Letheringsett, who held it from the earl of Gloucester, who held it in chief from the king: Campbell, 'Complexity of Manorial Structure in Medieval Norfolk', 240, 243.
365. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 48-9.
366. e siècle) (Collection de L'Ecole Française de Rome, cxxii, Rome, 1989), 207-13, 218
367. Rutledge, 'Landlords and Tenants'
368. Goddard, Lordship and Medieval Urbanisation, 242-3.
369. Mills, too, were similarly prone to chains of subletting. 'The paring-down of the profit margin of each of the parties in the chain is obvious ... the position of a sub-lessee was often very precarious': John Langdon, Mills in the Medieval Economy: England, 1300-1540 (Oxford, 2004), 216-17.
370. These are the 'undersettles' and 'anilepimen' of the documents: See Douglas, Social Structure of Medieval East Anglia, 31 328 Homans, English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century, 136-7, 210-12
371. Miller, Abbey and Bishopric of Ely, 144-8.
372. Dorothea Oschinsky (ed.), Walter of Henley and Other Treatises on Estate Management and Accounting (Oxford, 1971).
373. Maurice Beresford, The Lost Villages of England (Gloucester, 1983), 76-7
374. Martin, Feudalism to Capitalism, 121, 143
375. S. T. Bindoff, Ket's Rebellion, 1549 (Hist. Assoc. Pamphlet, general ser., xii, London, 1949).
376. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Commonfields on a Norfolk Manor'
377. Campbell, 'Extent and Layout of Commonfields in Eastern Norfolk'
378. Whittle, Development of Agrarian Capitalism, 64-82
379. Margaret Spufford, A Cambridgeshire Community: Chippenham from Settlement to Enclosure (Dept. Eng. Local Hist., Occasional Papers, xx, Leicester, 1965), 32-46.
380. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 535-6.
381. Jones, 'Caddington, Kensworth, and Dunstable in 1297', 322-3.
382. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 28-33.
383. Homans, English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century, 210-11
384. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants', 522-39
385. Titow, 'Some Differences between Manors and their Effects on the Conditions of the Peasantry', 6-13.
386. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, 33-46
387. Rutledge, 'Immigration and Population Growth'
388. Carole Rawcliffe, 'Sickness and Health', in Carole Rawcliffe and Richard Wilson (eds.), Medieval Norwich (Hambledon and London, 2004), 307-8.
389. For example Harley, 'Population Trends and Agricultural Developments from the Warwickshire Hundred Rolls of 1279'.
390. For definitions of 'open' and 'closed' villages, see Dennis Mills, 'English Villages in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: A Sociological Approach. Part 1: The Concept of a Sociological Classification', Amateur Historian, vi (1965).
391. For example J. A. Raftis, 'Social Structure in Five East Midland Villages', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xviii (1965), 90-8
392. Razi, Life, Marriage and Death in a Medieval Parish, 94-8
393. Fox, 'Exploitation of the Landless by Lords and Tenants'.
394. Calculated from Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England',
395. For a case study, see Raftis, 'Land Market at Godmanchester', 312-13.
396. Barg, 'Social Structure of Manorial Freeholders', 113-15.
397. Conversely, allowance needs to be made for the fact that many tenants undoubtedly held land by multiple tenures and in multiple townships: Campbell, 'Complexity of Manorial Structure in Medieval Norfolk', 243-5.
398. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 424-30.
399. See also Patrick K. O'Brien and Gianni Toniolo, 'The Poverty of Italy and the Backwardness of its Agriculture before 1914', in Campbell and Overton (eds.), Land, Labour and Livestock, 405-9.
400. The extant 1327 and 1332 lay subsidy returns indicate that c.1330 there were potentially 283,000 households with movable goods worth 12s. or more, of which at least 240,000 were rural non-seigniorial households: Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death (calculated from data supplied by R. E. Glasscock). With a total population of 4.5 million, this implies at least a further 560,000 rural non-seigniorial households (i.e. 70 per cent of the rural non-seigniorial total) below the minimum tax-paying threshold of wealth. With a higher population estimate of 5.0 million, the equivalent proportion of non-taxpaying rural non-seigniorial households rises to 75 per cent.
401. Munro, 'Industrial Transformations in the North-West European Textile Trades', 121-30.
402. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 22-4
403. Baillie, 'Putting Abrupt Environmental Change Back into Human History'.
404. Ian Kershaw, 'The Great Famine and Agrarian Crisis in England, 1315-22', Past and Present, no. 59 (May 1973)
405. repr. in R. H. Hilton (ed.), Peasants, Knights and Heretics: Studies in Medieval English Social History (Cambridge, 1976)
406. William Chester Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century (Princeton, 1996)
407. Barbara A. Hanawalt, Crime and Conflict in English Communities, 1300-1348 (London, 1979), 238-60.
408. J. R. Maddicott, The English Peasantry and the Demands of the Crown, 1294-1341 (Past and Present Supplements, no. 1, Oxford, 1975)
409. repr. in Aston (ed.), Landlords, Peasants and Politics in Medieval England
410. W. M. Ormrod, 'The Crown and the English Economy, 1290-1348', in Campbell (ed.), Before the Black Death
411. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Ecology Versus Economics in Late Thirteenth- and Early Fourteenth-Century English Agriculture', in Del Sweeney (ed.), Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Technology, Practice and Representation (Philadelphia, 1995), 94-6.
412. Alan R. H. Baker, 'Evidence in the "Nonarum Inquisitiones" of Contracting Arable Lands in England during the Early Fourteenth Century', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xix (1966)
413. repr., with a supplementary note, in Alan R. H. Baker, John D. Hamshere and John Langton (eds.), Geographical Interpretations of Historical Sources: Readings in Historical Geography (Newton Abbot, 1970)
414. Maddicott, English Peasantry and the Demands of the Crown
415. Livingstone, 'Nonae', ii, 320-61
416. Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death.
417. Bailey, 'Peasant Welfare in England', 246.
418. Hatcher, Rural Economy and Society in the Duchy of Cornwall, 219.
419. 'Either agricultural workers were under- or unemployed for much of the year, including much of the harvest period, or they were less efficient at performing farm tasks than workers in 1561 and later': Gregory Clark, 'Labour Productivity in English Agriculture, 1300-1860', in Campbell and Overton (eds.), Land, Labour and Livestock, 232.
420. Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England, 124
421. Clark, 'Labour Productivity in English Agriculture', 225
422. Eona Karakacili, 'English Agrarian Labor Productivity Rates before the Black Death: A Case Study', Jl Econ. Hist., lxiv (2004).
423. Gregory Clark, 'The Long March of History: Farm Laborers' Wages in England, 1208-1850', (accessed 30 May 2005).
424. This supersedes his previous estimate of a fourfold difference: Clark, 'Labour Productivity in English Agriculture', 219-21.
425. On the possible relationship between farm size and labour productivity after 1500, see Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England, 127
426. Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: The Agricultural Development of the South Midlands, 1450-1850 (Oxford, 1992), ch. 11.
427. Campbell, English Seigniorial Agriculture, 424-30.
428. Chibnall, Anglo-Norman England, 184-91.
429. For a case study of the active subinfeudation and alienation that took place during this period, see Edmund King, Peterborough Abbey, 1086-1310: A Study in the Land Market (Cambridge, 1973), 18-34. I am grateful to Barbara Harvey for alerting me to this example.
430. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage', 254.
431. In the 1330s it supported 13.7 taxpayers per square mile compared with the national average of 5.6 taxpayers per square mile (equivalent, perhaps, to 220 people per square mile, compared with a national average of 90 people per square mile): Campbell and Bartley, England on the Eve of the Black Death.
432. In 1377 Norfolk supported 48 poll-tax payers per square mile compared with the national average of 27 poll-tax payers per square mile: calculated from Sir Charles Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Oxford, 1906), 162-6.
433. At their peak, population densities in the most congested parts of the county may have exceeded 400 people per square mile: Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Agricultural Progress in Medieval England: Some Evidence from Eastern Norfolk', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xxxvi (1983), 28.
434. For evidence of plague mortality in Norfolk, see J. F. D. Shrewsbury, A History of the Bubonic Plague in the British Isles (Cambridge, 1970), 94-9.
435. Campbell, 'Extent and Layout of Commonfields in Eastern Norfolk'
436. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Commonfields on a Norfolk Manor'
437. Williamson, 'Norfolk'
438. Campbell, 'Agricultural Progress in Medieval England', 39-41.
439. Anne F. Sutton, 'The Early Linen and Worsted Industry of Norfolk and the Evolution of the London Mercers' Company', Norfolk Archaeology, xl (1989)
440. Crime in East Anglia in the Fourteenth Century: Norfolk Gaol Delivery Rolls, 1307-1316, ed. Barbara Hanawalt (Norfolk Record Soc., xliv, [Norwich], 1976).
441. Campbell 'Agricultural Progress in Medieval England'
442. John P. Power and Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'Cluster Analysis and the Classification of Medieval Demesne-Farming Systems', Trans. Inst. Brit. Geographers, new ser., xvii (1992), 233-6
443. Bruce M. S. Campbell and Mark Overton, 'A New Perspective on Medieval and Early Modern Agriculture: Six Centuries of Norfolk Farming, c.1250-c.1850', Past and Present, no. 141 (Nov. 1993).
444. E. M. Carus-Wilson, 'The Medieval Trade of the Ports of the Wash', Medieval Archaeology, vi-vii (1962-3)
445. Anthony Saul, 'English Towns in the Late Middle Ages: The Case of Great Yarmouth', Jl Medieval Hist., viii (1982)
446. Rutledge, 'Immigration and Population Growth'
447. Bärbel Brodt, '(d) East Anglia', in Palliser (ed.), Cambridge Urban History of Britain, i, 642-56
448. Elizabeth Rutledge, 'Economic Life/Norwich before the Black Death', in Rawcliffe and Wilson (eds.), Medieval Norwich.
449. The phrase is taken from B. H. Slicher Van Bath, 'The Rise of Intensive Husbandry in the Low Countries', in J. S. Bromley and E. H. Kossmann (eds.), Britain and the Netherlands: Papers Delivered to the Oxford-Netherlands Historical Conference, 1959 (London, 1960), 153.
450. For an alternative verdict on Norfolk's economy at this time, see Pamela Nightingale, 'The Lay Subsidies and the Distribution of Wealth in Medieval England, 1275-1334', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., lvii (2004).
451. Hanawalt, Crime and Conflict in English Communities. Inter-tenant disputes have been little studied
452. see Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 48. Notable exceptions include
453. Smith, 'Kin and Neighbors in a Thirteenth-Century Suffolk Community', 247-9
454. Britton, Community of the Vill, 115-23.
455. Northern and eastern Kent provide a close parallel: R. A. L. Smith, Canterbury Cathedral Priory: A Study in Monastic Administration (Cambridge, 1943), chs. 9-10
456. F. R. H. Du Boulay, The Lordship of Canterbury: An Essay on Medieval Society (London, 1966), 114-59
457. Baker, 'Open Fields and Partible Inheritance on a Kent Manor'
458. Campbell et al., Medieval Capital and its Grain Supply.
459. Rev. W. Hudson, 'The Prior of Norwich's Manor of Hindolveston: Its Early Organisation and Rights of the Customary Tenants to Alienate their Strips of Land', Norfolk Archaeology, xx (1921)
460. Campbell, 'Population Pressure, Inheritance, and the Land Market'. Similar stresses and strains are reflected in the payment of heriots on the bishop of Winchester's estate in southern England
461. see M. M. Postan (with J. Titow), 'Heriots and Prices on Winchester Manors with Statistical Notes on Winchester Heriots by J. Longden', in Postan, Essays on Medieval Agriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy, repr. from Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., xi (1958-9)
462. Barbara F. Harvey, 'Introduction: The "Crisis" of the Early Fourteenth Century', in Campbell (ed.), Before the Black Death, 8-9.
463. Crime in East Anglia, ed. Hanawalt, 14-15. Although less extreme, the resort to crime is also evident in Yorkshire, Essex, Northamptonshire and Somerset
464. see Hanawalt, Crime and Conflict in English Communities, 241-9.
465. Campbell, 'Population Pressure, Inheritance, and the Land Market', 91.
466. The phrase is taken from Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism: The Family, Property and Social Transition (Oxford, 1978), 163.
467. For a definition of agrarian capitalism, see Whittle, Development of Agrarian Capitalism, 7-9.
468. Hatcher, 'English Serfdom and Villeinage'
469. Kanzaka, 'Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England'.
470. Norwich for instance, presented the spectacle of 'a city whose rapid physical expansion was not being matched by economic growth', moving, during the course of the early fourteenth century, 'from being a prosperous city with a wide industrial and commercial base to a city with a far greater proportion of urban poor heavily dependent upon a single industry': Rutledge, 'Economic Life/Norwich before the Black Death', 187-8.
471. That tenants were active in defending their own interests is well documented: See R. H. Hilton, 'Peasant Movements in England before 1381', Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd ser., ii (1949)
472. repr. in Rodney Hilton, Class Conflict and the Crisis of Feudalism: Essays in Medieval Social History, 2nd edn (London, 1990)
473. Rigby, English Society in the Later Middle Ages, 104-10.
474. Bruce M. S. Campbell, 'England, 1086-c.1540: Land and People', in S. H. Rigby (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to the Later Middle Ages (Oxford, 2002), 5-9, 16-19, 22.
475. Tawney, Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century.