Vertical Organization of Canopy Biota

Forest Canopies: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 73-101

  Shaw, David C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33645231424     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-012457553-0/50008-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (168)

1. Adams R.H. Stratification, diurnal and seasonal migration of the animals in a decidous forest. Ecological Monographs 1941, 11:189-227.
2. Allee W.C., Park O., Emerson A.E., Park T., Schmidt K.P. Principles of Animal Ecology 1949, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia and London.
3. Anderson S.H., Shugart H.H., Smith T.M. Vertical and temporal habitat utilization within a breeding bird community. The Role of Insectivorous Birds in Forested Ecosystems 1979, 203-216. Academic Press, New York. J.G. Dickson, R.N. Conner, R.R. Fleet, J.A. Jackson, J.C. Kroll (Eds.).
4. Baars R., Kelly D., Sparrow A.D. Liane distribution within native forest remnants in two regions of the South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 1998, 22:71-85.
5. Barker P.J., Wilson J.S. A quantitative technique for the identification of canopy stratification in tropical and temperate forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2000, 127:77-86.
6. Barkman J.J. Phytosociology and Ecology of Cryptogamic Epiphytes 1958, Van Goreum, Assen, The Netherlands.
7. Basset Y., Aberlene H., Delvare G. Abundance and stratification of foliage arthropods in a lowland rain forest of Cameroon. Ecological Entomology 1992, 17:310-318.
8. Beattie G.A., Lindow S.E. The seeret life of foliar bacterial pathogens on leaves. Annual Review of Phytopathology 1995, 33:145-172.
9. Beattie G.A., Lindow S.E. Bacterial colonization of leaves: a spectrum of strategies. Phytopathology 1999, 89:353-359.
10. Bell H.L. A bird community of New Guinean lowland rainforest. 3. Vertical distribution of the avifauna. Emu 1982, 82:143-162.
11. Benzing D.H. Vascular Epiphytes 1990, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
12. Bernstein M.E., Carroll G.C. Internal fungi in old-growth Douglas-fir foliage. Canadian Journal of Botany 1977, 55:644-653.
13. Bongers F. Methods to assess tropical rain forest canopy structure: an overview. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:263-277.
14. Bongers F., Charles-Dominique P., Forget P., Thery M. Nouragues, Dynamics and Plant-Animal Interactions in a Neoptropical Rainforest 2001, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
15. Born M., Gaucher P. Distribution and life histories of amphibians and reptiles. Nouragnues, Dynamics and Plant-Animal Interactions in a Neoptropical Rainforest 2001, 167-184. Chapter 15, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. F. Bongers, P. Charles-Dominique, P. Forget, M. Thery (Eds.).
16. Bourliére F. Mammalian species richness in tropical rainforests. Vertebrates in Complex Tropical Systems 1989, Chapter 6, Springer-Verlag, New York. M.L. Harmelin-Vivien, F. Bourliere (Eds.).
17. Burgaz A.R., Fuentes E., Escudero A. Ecology of cryptogamic epiphytes and their communities in deciduous forests in Mediterranean Spain. Vegetatio 1994, 112:73-86.
18. Calder M., Bernhardt P. The Biology of Mistletoes 1983, Academic Press, Sydney.
19. Canham J.A. The color of light in forests and its implications. Ecological Monographs 1993, 63:1-27.
20. Carey A.B. Interactions of Northwest forest canopies and arboreal mammals. Northwest Science 1996, 70(Special Issue):72-78.
21. Carlile M.J., Watkinson S.C. The Fungi 1994, Academic Press, London.
22. Carroll G.C. Needle microepiphytes in a Douglas-fir canopy: biomass and distribution patterns. Canadian Journal of Botany 1979, 57:1000-1007.
23. Carroll G.C. Forest canopies: complex and independent subsystems. Forests: Fresh Perspectives from Ecosystem Analysis. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Biology Colloquium 1979, 87-108. Oregon State University, Corvallis. R.H. Waring (Ed.).
24. Carroll G.C. Fungal associates of woody plants as insect antagonists in leaves and stems. Microbial Mediation of Plant-Herbivore Interactions 1991, 253-271. Wiley, New York. P. Barbosa, V.A. Krischik, C.G. Jones (Eds.).
25. Carroll G.C., Carroll E.E., Pike L.H., Perkins J.R., Sherwood M. Biomass and distribution patterns of conifer twig microepiphytes in a Douglas-fir forest. Canadian Journal of Botany 1980, 58:624-630.
26. Carmak J. Leaf distribution in large trees and stands of the floodplain forest in southern Moravia. Tree Physiology 1998, 18:727-737.
27. Chittibabu C.V., Parthasarathy N. Liana diversity and host relationships in a tropical evergreen forest in the Indian Eastern Ghats. Ecological Research 2001, 16:519-529.
28. Clement J.P., Shaw D.C. Crown structure and the distribution of epiphyte functional group biomass in old-growth Pseudotsuga menziesii trees. EcoScience 1999, 6:243-254.
29. Cockle A. The dispersal and recruitment of Cyclanthaceae and Philodendron (Araceae) understorey root-climbing vines. Couragnues, Dynamics and Plant-Animal Interactions in a Neoptropical Rainforest 2001, 251-263. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. F. Bongers, P. Charles-Dominique, P. Forget, M. Thery (Eds.).
30. Cody M.L. Competition and the Structure of Bird Communities 1974, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
31. Cody M.L. Habitat Selection in Birds 1985, Academic Press, Orlando.
32. Coley P.D. Herbivory and defensive characteristics of tree species in a lowland tropical forest. Ecological Monographs 1983, 53:209-233.
33. Coley P.D., Barone J.A. Herbivory and plant defenses in tropical forests. Annual Review Ecology and Systematics 1996, 27:305-335.
34. de Jager E.S., Wehner F.C., Korsten L. Microbial ecology of the mango phylloplane. Microbial Ecology 2001, 42:201-207.
35. De Vries P.J. Stratification of fruit-feeding numphalid butterflies in a Costa Rican rainforest. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 1988, 26:98-108.
36. Dejean A., Olmsted I., Snelling R.R. Tree-epiphyte-ant relationships in the low inundated forest of Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Biotropica 1995, 27:57-70.
37. Demmig-Adams B., Maguas C., Adams W.W., Meyer A., Kilian E., Lange O.L. Effect of high light on the efficiency of photochemical energy conversion in a variety of lichen species with green and blue-green phycobionts. Planta 1990, 180:400-409.
38. Duellman W.E. Tropical herpetofaunal communities: patterns of community structure in Neotropical rainforests. Vertebrates in Complex Tropical Systems 1989, Chapter 3, Springer-Verlag, New York. M.L. Harmelin-Vivien, F. Bourliere (Eds.).
39. Dunlavy J.C. Studies on the phyto-vertical distribution of birds. Auk 1935, 52:425-431.
40. Edmonds R.L., Driver C.H. Dispersion and deposition of spores of Fomes annosus and fluorescent particles. Phytopathology 1974, 64:1313-1321.
41. Emmons L.H. Mammals of rain forest canopies. Forest Canopies 1995, 199-223. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
42. Emmons L.H., Gentry A.H. Tropical forest structure and the distribution of gliding and prehensile-tailed vertebrates. American Naturalist 1983, 121:513-524.
43. Ernest K.A. Insect herbivory on a tropical understory tree: effects of leaf age and habitat. Biotropica 1989, 21:194-199.
44. Endler J.A. The color of light in forests and its implications. Ecological Monographs 1993, 63:1-27.
45. Fichter E. An ecological study of Wyoming spruce-fir forest arthropods with special reference to stratification. Ecological Monographs 1939, 9:183-213.
46. Foggo A., Ozanne C.M.P., Speight M.R., Hambler C. Edge effects and tropical forest canopy invertebrates. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:347-359.
47. Foster R.E., Foster A.T. Studies in forest pathology VIII. Decay of western hemlock on the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany 1951, 29:479-521.
48. Franklin J.F., Forman R.T. Creating landscape patterns by forest cutting: ecological consequences and principles. Landscape Ecology 1987, 1:5-18.
49. Franklin J.F., Spies T.A., Van Pelt R., Carey A.B., Thornburgh D.A., Berg D.R., Lindenmayer D.B., Harmon M.E., Keeton W.S., Shaw D.C., Bible K., Chen J. Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-fir forests as an example. Forest Ecology and Management 2002, 155:399-423.
50. Freiberg M. Spatial and temporal pattern of temperature and humidity of a tropical permontane rain forest tree in Costa Rica. Selbyana 1997, 18:77-84.
51. Gamboa M.A., Bayman P. Communities of endophytic fungi in leaves of a tropical timber tree (Guarea guidonia: Meliaceae). Biotropica 2001, 33:352-360.
52. Gauslaa Y., Solhaug K.A. Differences in the susceptibility to light stress between epiphytic lichens of ancient and young boreal forest stands. Functional Ecology 1996, 10:344-354.
53. Geiger R. The Climate Near the Ground 1965, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
54. Gilbertson R.L. Wood-rotting fungi of North America. Mycologia 1980, 72:1-49.
55. Gradstein S.R., Pocs T. Bryophytes. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, 311-325. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
56. Guillemin M., Atramentowicz M., Julien-Laferriére D. The marsupial community. Nouragnues, Dynamics and Plant-Animal Interactions in a Neoptropical Rainforest 2001, 121-128. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. F. Bongers, P. Charles-Dominique, P. Forget, M. Thery (Eds.).
57. Haddow J.J., Gillett J.D., Highton R.B. The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. V. The vertical distribution and biting-cycle of mosquitoes in rain-forest, with further observations on microclimate. Bulletin of Entomological Research 1947, 37:307-330.
58. Hale M.E. Vertical distribution of cryptogams in a virgin forest in Wisconsin. Ecology 1952, 33:398-406.
59. Hale M.E. Vertical distribution of cryptogams in a red maple swamp in Connecticut. The Bryologist 1965, 68:193-197.
60. Hallé F., Oldeman R.A.A., Tomlinson P.B. Tropical Trees and Forests 1978, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
61. Hartshorn G.S. Tree falls and tropical forest dynamics. Tropical Trees as Living Systems 1978, 617-638. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. P.B. Tomlinson, M.H. Zimmerman (Eds.).
62. Hawksworth F.G., Wiens D. Dwarf mistletoes: biology, pathology, and systematics. U.S. Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 709 1996, Washington DC.
63. Hayes J.P., Gruver J.C. Vertical stratification of bat activity in an old-growth forest in western Washington. Northwest Science 2000, 74:102-108.
64. Hegarty E. The climbers: lianes and vines. Tropical Rain Forests Ecosystems. Ecosystems of the World 14B 1989, Chapter 18, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
65. Holbrook N.M., Lund C.P. Photosynthesis in forest canopies. Forest Canopies 1995, 411-430. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
66. Hollinger D.Y. Canopy organization and foliage photosynthetic capacity in a broad-leaved evergreen montane forest. Functional Ecology 1989, 3:53-62.
67. Holz I., Gradstein S.R., Heinrichs J., Kappelle M. Bryophyte diversity, microhabitat differentiation, and distribution of life forms in Costa Rican upper montane. Quercus forest. Bryologist 2002, 105:334-348.
68. Ishii H., Reynolds J.H., Ford E.D., Shaw D.C. Height growth and vertical development of an old-growth Pseudotsuga-Tsuga forest in southwestern Washington State, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 2000, 30:17-24.
69. Johansson D. Ecology of vascular epiphytes in West African rain forest. Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 1974, 59:1-129.
70. Johnson J.A., Whitney N.J. An investigation of needle endophyte colonization patterns with respect to height and compass direction in a single crown of balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Canadian Journal of Botany 1989, 67:723-725.
71. Kalcounis M.C., Hobson K.A., Brigham R.M., Hecker K.R. Bat activity in the boreal forest: importance of stand type and vertical strata. Journal of Mammology 1999, 80:673-682.
72. Kalko E.K.V., Handley C.O. Neotropical bats in the canopy: diversity, community structure, and implications for conservation. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:319-333.
73. Karr J.R. Structure of avian communities in selected Panama and Illinois habitats. Ecological Monographs 1971, 41:207-233.
74. Karr J.R. Birds. Tropical Rain Forests Ecosystems. Ecosystems of the World 14B 1989, Chapter 22, Elsevier, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
75. Kato K., Yamamoto S. Branch growth and allocation patterns of saplings of two Abies species under different canopy conditions in a subalpine old-growth forest in central Japan. EcoScience 2002, 9:98-105.
76. Kays R., Allison A. Arboreal tropical forest vertebrates: current knowledge and research trends. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:109-120.
77. Kelly D.L. Epiphytes and climbers of a Jamaican rain forest: vertical distribution, life forms and life histories. Journal of Biogeography 1985, 12:223-241.
78. Kozlowski T.T., Pallardy S.G. Physiology of Woody Plants 1997, Academic Press, San Diego.
79. Laman T.G. Seedling establishment of the hemiepiphyte Ficus stupenda in the Bornean rain forest canopy. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. 1993, 74(Supplement):321.
80. Lange O.L., Kilian E., Ziegler H. Water vapor uptake and photosynthesis of lichens: performance differences in species with green and blue-green algae as phycobionts. Oecologia 1986, 71:104-110.
81. Laurance W.F., Bierregaard R.O. Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management and Conservation of Fragmented Communities 1997, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
82. Laurent R.F. Herpetofauna of tropical America and Africa. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, Chapter 23, Elsevier Science Publisher, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
83. Lertzman K.P., Sutherland G., Inselberg A., Saunders S. Canopy gaps and the landscape mosaic in a temperate rainforest. Ecology 1996, 77:1254-1270.
84. Longino J.T., Nadkarni N.M. A comparison of ground and canopy leaf litter ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in a neotropical montane forest. PSYCHE 1990, 97:81-93.
85. Lowman M.D., Heatwole H. Spatial and temporal variability in defoliation of Australian Eucalypts. Ecology 1992, 73:129-142.
86. MacArthur R.H. Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests. Ecology 1958, 39:599-619.
87. MacArthur R.H., MacArthur J.W. On bird species diversity. Ecology 1961, 42:594-598.
88. Malcolm J.R. Comparative abundances of Neotropical small mammals by trap height. Journal of Mammalogy 1991, 72:188-192.
89. Malcolm J.R. Forest structure and the abundance and diversity of neotropical small mammals. Forest Canopies 1995, 179-197. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
90. Mannan R.W., Meslow E.C., Wight H.M. Use of snags by birds in Douglas-fir forests, Western Oregon. Journal of Wildlife Management 1980, 44:787-797.
91. Mazimpaka V., Lara F. Cortieolous bryophytes of Quercus pyrenaica forests from Gredos Mountains (Spain): vertical distribution and affinity for epiphytic habitats. Nova Hedwigia 1995, 61:431-446.
92. McCune B. Gradients in epiphyte biomass in three Pseudotsuga: Tsuga forests of different ages in western Oregon and Washington. The Bryologist 1993, 96:405-411.
93. McCune B., Amsberry K.A., Camacho F.J., Clery S., Cole C., Emerson C., Felder G., French P., Greene D., Harris R., Hutten M., Larson B., Lesko M., Majors S., Markwell T., Parker G.G., Pendergrass K., Peterson E.B., Peterson E.T., Platt J., Proctor J., Rambo T., Rosso A., Shaw D., Turner R., Widmer M. Vertical profile of epiphytes in a Pacific Northwest old-growth forest. Northwest Science 1997, 71:145-152.
94. McCune B., Rosentreter R., Ponzetti J.M., Shaw D.C. Epiphyte habitats in an old conifer forest in western Washington, USA. The Bryologist 2000, 103:417-427.
95. Merrill W., Shigo A.L. An expanded concept of tree decay. Phytopathology 1979, 69:1158-1161.
96. Moffett M.W. What's "up"? A critical look at the basic terms of canopy biology. Biotropica 2000, 32:569-596.
97. Moffett M.W. The nature and limits of canopy biology. Selbyana 2001, 22:155-179.
98. Mullin S.J., Cooper R.J. Barking up the wrong tree: climbing performance of rat snakes and its implications for depredation of avian nests. Canadian Journal of Zoology 2002, 80:591-595.
99. Nadkarni N.M. Diversity of species and interactions in the upper tree canopy of forest ecosystems. American Zoologist 1994, 34:70-78.
100. Nadkarni N.M., Longino J.T. Invertebrates in canopy and ground organic matter in a neotropical montane forest, Costa Rica. Biotropica 1990, 22:286-289.
101. Nadkarni N.M., Matelson T.J. Bird use of epiphyte resources in Neotropical trees. The Condor 1989, 91:891-907.
102. Nieder J., Engwald S., Klawun M., Barthlott W. Spatial distribution of vascular epiphytes (including Hemiepiphytes) in a lowland Amazonian rain forest (Surumoni Care Plot) of southern Venezuela. Biotropica 2000, 32:385-396.
103. Nieder J., Prosperi J., Michaloud G. Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diversity. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:51-63.
104. Norton D.A., Ladley J.J., Owen H.J. Distribution and population structure of the loranthaceous mistletoes Alepis flavida, Peraxilla colensoi, and Peraxilla tetrapetala within two New Zealand Nothofagus forests. New Zealand Journal of Botany 1997, 35:323-336.
105. Orians G.H. The number of bird species in some tropical forests. Ecology 1969, 50:783-801.
106. Packer W.C., Layne J.N. Foraging site preferences and relative arboreality of small rodents in Florida. American Midland Naturalist 1991, 125:187-194.
107. Paoletti M., Taylor R., Stinner B., Stinner D., Benzing D. Diversity of soil fauna in the canopy and forest floor of a Venezuelan cloud forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 1991, 7:373-383.
108. Papageorgius C. Mimicry in neo-tropical butterflies. American Scientist 1975, 63:522-532.
109. Parker G.G. Structure and microclimate of forest canopies. Forest Canopies 1995, 73-106. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
110. Parker G.G., O'Neill J.P., Higman D. Vertical profile and canopy organization in a mixed deciduous forest. Vegetatio 1989, 85:1-11.
111. Parker G.G., Brown M.J. Forest canopy stratification: is it useful?. The American Naturalist 2000, 155:473-484.
112. Parker G.G., Davis M.M., Chapotin S.M. Canopy light transmittance in Douglas-fir-western hemlock stands. Tree Physiology 2002, 22:147-158.
113. Pearson D.L. Vertical stratification of birds in a tropical dry forest. Condor 1971, 73:46-55.
114. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics 1985, Academic Press, San Diego. S.T.A. Pickett, P.S. White (Eds.).
115. Pike L.H., Denison W.C., Tracy D.M., Sherwood M.A., Rhoades F.M. Floristic survey of epiphytic lichens and bryophytes growing on old-growth conifers in western Oregon. The Bryologist 1975, 7:389-402.
116. Pittendrigh C.S. The bromeliad-Anophele-malaria complex in Trinidad. 1. The bromeliad flora. Evolution 1948, 2:58-89.
117. Prinzing A.J. Use of shifting microclimatic mosaics by arthropods on exposed tree trunks. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 2001, 94:210-218.
118. The Biology of Vines 1991, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. F.E. Putz, H.A. Mooney (Eds.).
119. Putz F.E. Vines in treetops: consequences of mechanical dependence. Forest Canopies 1995, 311-323. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
120. Pyle R.M. The Butterflies of Caseadia 2002, Seattle Audubon Society, Seattle, Washington.
121. Rand A.S. Ecological distribution in anoline lizards of Puerto Rico. Ecology 1964, 45:745-752.
122. Reagan D.P. Congenerie species distribution and abundance in a three-dimensional habitat: the rain forest anoles of Puerto Rico. Copeia 1992, 392-403.
123. Reagan D.P. Lizard ecology in the canopy of an island rain forest. Forest Canopies 1995, 149-164. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
124. Reid N., Smith M.S., Yan Z. Ecology and population biology of mistletoes. Forest Canopies 1995, 285-310. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
125. Reynolds B.C., Crossley D.A. Spatial variation in herbivory by forest canopy arthropods along an elevation gradient. Environmental Entomology 1997, 26:1232-1239.
126. Reynolds D.P. Stratification of tropical epiphylls. Kalikasan. Philippine Journal of Biology 1972, 1:7-10.
127. Rhoades F.M. Nonvascular epiphytes in forest canopies: worldwide distribution, abundance, and ecological roles. Forest Canopies 1995, 353-408. Academic Press, San Diego, USA. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
128. Richards P.W. The Tropical Rain Forest 1952, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
129. Richards P.W. The ecology of tropical forest bryophytes. New Manual of Bryology 1984, Volume 2:1233-1270. The Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Nichinan. R.M. Schuster (Ed.).
130. Richards P.W., Walsh R.P.D., Baillie I.C., Greig-Smith P. The Tropical Rain Forest: An Ecological Study 1996, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
131. Rinker H.B. The use of a forest canopy walkway for studying habitat selection by neotropical migrants. Selbyana 2001, 22:89-96.
132. Robinson S.K., Holmes R.T. Effects of plant species and foliage structure on the foraging behavior of forest birds. The Auk 1984, 101:672-684.
133. Room P.M. Ecology of the mistletoe Tapianthus bangwensis growing on cocoa in Ghana. Journal of Ecology 1973, 61:729-742.
134. Rose F. Phytogeographical and ecological aspects of Lobarion communities in Europe. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 1988, 96:69-79.
135. Rowe W.J., Potter D.A. Vertical stratification of feeding by Japanese beetles within linden tree canopies: selective foraging or height per se?. Oecologia 1996, 108:459-466.
136. Scholl P.J., DeFoliart G.R., Nemenyi P.B. Vertical distribution of biting activity by Aedes triseriatus. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 1979, 72:537-539.
137. Schowalter T.D., Ganio L.M. Vertical and seasonal variation in canopy arthropod communities in an old-growth conifer forest in southwestern Washington, USA. Bulletin of Entomological Research 1998, 88:633-640.
138. Schulze C.H., Linsenmair K.E., Fiedler K. Understory versus canopy: patterns of vertical stratification and diversity among Lepidoptera in a Bornean rain forest. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:133-152.
139. Sharpe F. The biologically significant attributes of forest canopies to small birds. Northwest Science 1996, 70(Special Issue):86-93.
140. Shaw D.C., Weiss S.B. Canopy light and the distribution of hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense [Rosendahl] G.N. Jones subsp. tsugense) aerial shoots in an old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest. Northwest Science 2000, 74:306-315.
141. Shaw D.C., Freeman E.A., Flick C. The vertical occurrence of small birds in an old-growth Douglas-fir-western hemlock forest stand. Northwest Science 2002, 76:322-334.
142. Shaw, D.C., Franklin, J.F., Bible, K., Klopatek, J., Freeman, E., Greene, S., and Parker, G.G. (In pres). Ecological setting of the Wind River old-growth forest, Ecosystems.
143. Shigo A.L. Tree decay: an expanded concept. US Dept. of Agriculture. Agricultural Bulletin 1979, 419.
144. Sillett S.C. Branch epiphyte assemblages in the forest interior and on the clearcut edge of a 700-year-old Douglas-fir canopy in western Oregon. The Bryologist 1995, 98:301-312.
145. Sillett S.C., Gradstein S.R., Griffin D. Bryophyte diversity of Ficus tree crowns from cloud forest and pasture in Costa Rica. The Bryologist 1995, 98:251-260.
146. Sillett S.C., Neitlich P.N. Emerging themes in epiphyte research in westside forests with special reference to cyanolichens. Northwest Science 1996, 70(Special Issue):54-60.
147. Simon U., Linsenmair K.E. Arthropods in tropical oaks: differences in their spatial distributions within tree crowns. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:179-191.
148. Smith A.P. Stratification of temperate and tropical forests. The American Naturalist 1973, 107:671-683.
149. Stone J.K., Sherwood M.A., Carroll G.C. Canopy microfungi: function and diversity. Northwest Science 1996, 70(Special Issue):37-45.
150. Stone J., Petrini O. Endophytes of forest trees: a model for fungus-plant interactions. The Mycota V Part B, Plant Relationships 1997, 129-140. Chapter 8, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. G.C. Carroll, P. Tudzynski (Eds.).
151. Sutton S.L. The spatial distribution of flying insects. Ecosystems of the World 14B: Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, 427-436. Elesevier Science, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
152. Taylor P.H., Lowman M.D. Vertical stratification of the small mammal community in a northern hardwood forest. Sellbyana 1996, 17:15-21.
153. Terborgh J. Vertical stratification of a Neotropical forest bird community. Acta XVII Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici 1980, 1005-1012. Deutsche Ornithologen-Gesellschaft, Berlin. R. Nöhring (Ed.).
154. Terborgh J. Five New World Primates: A Study in Comparative Ecology 1983, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
155. Terborgh J. The vertical component of plant species diversity in temperature and tropical forests. The American Naturalist 1985, 126:760-776.
156. Théry M. Forest light and its influence on habitat selection. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:251-261.
157. Wallace B.J. Vascular epiphytism in Austrlao-Asia. Ecosystems of the World 14B: Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, 261-282. Elesevier, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
158. Walter D.E., O'Dowd D.J. Life on the forest phylloplane: hairs, little houses, and myriad mites. Forest Canopies 1995, 325-351. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
159. Walther B.A. Vertical stratification and use of vegetation and light habitats by Neotopical forest birds. Journal fûr Ornithologie 2002, 143:64-81.
160. Walther B.A. Grounded ground birds and surfing canopy birds: variation of foraging stratum breadth observed in neotropical forest birds and tested with simulation models using boundary constraints. The Auk 2002, 119:658-675.
161. Waterman P.G., McKey D. Herbivory and secondary compounds in rain-forest plants. Ecosystems of the World 14B: Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, 513-536. Elesevier Science, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
162. Williams-Linera G., Lawton R.O. The ecology of hemiepiphytes in forest canopies. Forest Canopies 1995, 255-283. Academic Press, San Diego. M.D. Lowman, N.M. Nadkarni (Eds.).
163. Williams-Linera G., Baltazar A. Herbivory on young and mature leaves of one temperate deciduous and two tropical evergreen trees in the understory and canopy of a Mexican cloud fores. Selbyana 2001, 22:213-218.
164. Wilson D.E. Bats. Ecosystems of the World 14B: Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 1989, Chapter 20, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. H. Lieth, M.J.A. Werger (Eds.).
165. Winchester N.N. Canopy arthropods of coastal Sitka spruce trees on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Canopy Arthropods 1997, Chapman and Hall, New York. N.E. Stork, J.A. Adis, R.K. Didham (Eds.).
166. Winkler H., Preleuthner M. Behaviour and ecology of birds in tropical rain forest canopies. Plant Ecology 2001, 153:193-202.
167. Wunder L., Carey A.B. Use of the forest canopy by bats. Northwest Science 1996, 70(Special Issue):79-85.
168. Youlatos D., Gase J. Comparative positional behaviour of five primates. Nouragues, Dynamics and Plant-Animal Interactions in a Neoptropical Rainforest 2001, 103-114. Chapter 9, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands. F. Bongers, P. Charles-Dominique, P. Forget, M. Thery (Eds.).