Vitamin D as a neuroactive substance: Review

TheScientificWorldJournal

Volumn 6, Issue , 2006, Pages 125-139

  Kiraly, Stephen J ^a   Kiraly, Michael A ^b   Hawe, Rick D ^a   Makhani, Naila ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Brain derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF); Calcidiol; Calciferol; Calcitriol; Cholecalciferol; Experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE); Nerve growth factor (NGF); Nitric oxide; Parathyroid hormone (PTH); Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

CALCITONIN; COLECALCIFEROL; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NEUROSTEROID; PARATHYROID HORMONE; VITAMIN D; CALCIUM;

ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; CALCIUM METABOLISM; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; MOOD DISORDER; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROPSYCHIATRY; PERCEPTION DEAFNESS; PEROXIDATION; PREVALENCE; PROTEIN INDUCTION; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYSTEMATIC ERROR; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; ANIMAL; BONE; BRAIN; METABOLISM; NERVE CELL;

ANIMALS; BONE AND BONES; BRAIN; CALCIUM; HUMANS; NEURONS; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 33645219855     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1537744X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1100/tsw.2006.25     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Melcangi, C. and Panzica, G.C. (2001) Steroids in the nervous system: a Pandora's box? Trends Neurosci. 24(6), 311-312.
2. Melcangi, C. and Panzica, G.C. (2001) Response - vitamin D: the neglected neurosteroids. Trends Neurosci. 24(10), 572.
3. McGrath, J.J., Feron, F., and Eyles, D. (2001) Vitamin D: the neglected neurosteroid? Trends Neurosci. 24(10), 570-572.
4. Rupprecht, R. and Holsboer, F. (1999) Neuroactive steroids: mechanism of action and neuropsychopharmacological perspectives. Trends Neurosci. 22, 410-416.
5. st century: bone and beyond. Executive summary. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80(Suppl), 1673S-1677S.
6. Holick, M. (2004) Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers and cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80(Suppl), 1678S-1688S.
7. Strewler, G. (1997) Mineral metabolism and metabolic bone disease. In Basic and Clinical Endocrinology. Greenspan, F.S. and Strewler, G.J., Eds. Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT. Chap. 8; pp. 264-274.
8. Haussler, M.R., Haussler, C.A., Jurutka, P.W., et al. (1997) The vitamin D hormone and its nuclear receptor: molecular actions and disease states. J. Endocrinol. 154(Suppl), S57-73.
9. Sutherland, M.K. et al. (1993) Reduction of calbindin-24k mRNA levels in Alzheimer as compared to Huntington hippocampus. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 18, 32-42.
10. Darwish, H. and DeLuca, H.F. (1993) Vitamin D-regulated gene expression. Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. 3, 89-116.
11. Haussler, M.R. et al. (1995) New understanding of the molecular mechanism of receptor-mediated genomic actions of the vitamin D hormone. Bone 17, 33S.
12. Saporito, M.S., Brown, E.R., Hartpence, K.C., Wilcox, H.M., Vaught, J.L., and Carswell, S. (1994) Chronic 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated induction of nerve growth factor mRNA and protein in L929 fibroblasts and in adult rat brain. Brain Res. 633(1-2), 189-196.
13. Cornet, A., Baudet, C., Neveu, I., Baron-Van Evercooren, A., Brachet, P., and Naveilhan, P. (1998) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates the expression of VDR and NGF gene in Schwann cells in vitro. J. Neurosci. Res. 53(6), 742-746.
14. Musiol, I.M. and Feldman, D. (1997) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induction of nerve growth factor in L929 mouse fibroblasts: effect if vitamin D3 receptor regulation and potency of vitamin D3 analogs. Endocrinology 138(1), 12-18.
15. Pettifor, J.M., Moodley, G.P., Hough, F.S., Koch, H., Chen, T., Lu, Z., and Holick, M.F. (1996) The effect of season and latitude on in vitro vitamin D formation by sunlight in South Africa. S. Afr. Med. J. 86, 1270-1272.
16. Gordon, C.M., DePeter, K.C., Estherann, G., and Emans, S.J. (2003) Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency among Healthy Adolescents. Endo2003. Endocrine Society Meeting (Abstr) OR21-2,87.
17. Looker, A.C. and Gunter, A.W. (1998) Hypovitaminosis D in medical inpatients. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 344-345.
18. Rucker, D., Allan, J.A., Fick, G.H., and Hanley, D. (2002) Vitamin D insufficiency in a population of healthy western Canadians. CMAJ 166(12), 1517-1524.
19. Webb, A.R., Kline, L., and Holick, M.F. (1998) Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: exposure to winter sunlight in Boston and Edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 67, 373-378.
20. Webb, A., Pilbeam, C., Hanafin, N., and Hollick, M. (1990) An evaluation of the relative contributions of exposure to sunlight and of diet to the circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitaminD in an elderly nursing home population in Boston. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 1075-1081.
21. Holick, M.F. (1995) Environmental factors that influence the cutaneous production of vitamin D. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61, 638S-645S.
22. Flicker, L., Mead, K., MacInnis, R.J., Nowson, C., Scherer, S., Stein, M.S., Thomasx, J., Hopper, J.L., and Wark, J.D. (2003) Serum vitamin D and falls in older women in residential care in Australia. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 51(11), 1533-1538.
23. Liu, B.A., Gordon, M., Labranche, J.M., Murray, T.M., Vieth, R., and Shear, N.H. (1997) Seasonal prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in institutionalized older adults. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 45(5), 598-603.
24. Bouillon, R.A., Auwerx, J.H., Lissens, W.D., and Pelemans, W.K. (1987) Vitamin D status in the elderly: seasonal substrate deficiency causes 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol deficiency. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 45, 755-763.
25. Gloth, F.M., III, Gundberg, C.M., Hollis, B.W., et al. (1995) Vitamin D deficiency in homebound elderly persons. JAMA 274, 1683-1686.
26. McGrath, J.J. et al. (2001) Vitamin D insufficiency in south-east Queensland. Med. J. Aust. 174, 150-151.
27. Matsuoka, L.Y., Ide, L., Wortsman, J., MacLaughlin, J., and Holick, M.F. (1987) Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64, 1165-1168.
28. Matsuoka, L.Y., Wortsman, J., Hanifan, N., and Holick, M.F. (1988) Chronic sunscreen use decreases circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a preliminary study. Arch. Dermatol. 124, 1802-1804.
29. Matsuoka, L.Y., Wortsman, J., Dannenberg, M.J., Hollis, B.W., Lu, Z., and Holick, M.F. (1992) Clothing prevents ultraviolet-B radiation-dependent photosynthesis of vitamin D3. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 75, 1099-1103.
30. Guzel, R., Kozanoglu, E., Guler-uysal, F., Soyupak, S., and Sarpel, T. (2001) Vitamin D status and bone mineral density of veiled and unveiled Turkish women. J. Womens Health Gend. Based Med. 10(8), 765-770.
31. Alagöl, F., Shihadeh, Y., Boztepe, H., et al. (2000) Sunlight exposure and vitamin D deficiency in Turkish women. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 23, 173.
32. Norman, A.W. (1998) Sunlight, season, skin pigmentation, vitamin D, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D: integral components of the vitamin D endocrine system. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 1108-1110.
33. Bell, N.H., Epstein, S., Greene, A., Shary, J., Oexmann, M.J., and Shaw, S. (1985) Evidence for the alteration of the vitamin D-endocrine system in obese subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 76, 370-373.
34. Wortsman, J., Matsuoka, L.Y., Chen, T.C., Lu, Z., and Holick, M.F. (2000) Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72(3), 690-693.
35. Thomas, M.K., Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Thadhani, R.I., Shaw, A.C., Deraska, D.J., Kitch, B.T., Vamvakas, E.C., Dick, I.M., Prince, R.L., and Finkelstein, J.S. (1998) Hypovitaminosis D in medical inpatients. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 777-783.
36. Lyman, D. (2005) Undiagnosed vitamin D deficiency in the hospitalized patient. Am. Fam. Physician 71, 299-304.
37. CTV News (2001) Lack of Vitamin D Linked to Health Problems. Mon. Nov. 19. The article can be found at: http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/ CTVNews/1025061488210_20470688
38. Holick, M.F. (2003) The UV Advantage. Simon & Schuster, New York.
39. Holick, M.F. (2001) Sunlight "D"ilemma: risk of skin cancer or bone disease and muscle weakness. Lancet 357, 4-6.
40. Grant, W.B. (2002) An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the United States due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation. Cancer 94, 1867-1875.
41. LeBoff, M.S., Kohlmeier, L., Hurwitz, S., Franklin, J., Wright, J., and Glowacki, J. (1999) Occult vitamin D deficiency in postmenopausal US women with acute hHip fracture. JAMA 281, 1505-1511.
42. Malabanan, A., Veronikis, L.E., and Holick, M.F. (1998) Redefining vitamin D insufficiency. Lancet 351, 805-806.
43. Malabanan, A.O., Turner, A.K., and Holick, M.F. (1998) Severe generalized bone pain and osteoporosis in a premenopausal black female: effect of vitamin D replacement. J. Clin. Densitom. 1, 201-204.
44. Glerup, H., Mikkelsen, K., Poulsen, L., et al. (2000) Commonly recommended daily intake of vitamin D is not sufficient if sunlight exposure is limited. J. Intern. Med. 247, 260.
45. Chapuy, M.C., Pamphile, R., Paris, E., et al. (2002) Combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation in elderly women: confirmation of reversal of secondary hyperparathyroidism and hip fracture risk: the Decalyos II study. Osteoporos. Int. 13, 257-264.
46. Reginster, J. (2005) The high prevalence of inadequate serum vitamin D levels and implications for bone health. Curr. Res. Med. Opin. 21(4), 579-585.
47. Bischoff, H.A., Stahelin, H.B., Dick, W., et al. (2003) Effects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls: a randomized controlled trial. J. Bone Miner. Res. 33, 19-24.
48. Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Willett, W.C., Staehelin, H.B., Bazemore, M.G., Zee, Y.R., and Wong, J.B. (2004) Effect of vitamin D on falls: a meta-analysis. JAMA 291(16), 1999-2006.
49. Blumberg, R.W., Forbes, G.B., Fraser, D., et al. (1963) The prophylactic requirement and the toxicity of vitamin D. Pediatrics 31, 512-525.
50. Park, E.A. (1940) The therapy of rickets. JAMA 15(5), 370-379.
51. Armas, L., Hollis, B.W., and Heaney, R.P. (2004) Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89(11), 5387-5391.
52. Trang, H., Cole, D.E., Rubin, L.A., Pierratos, A., Siu, S., and Vieth, R. (1998) Evidence that vitamin D3 increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D more efficiently than does vitamin D2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68, 854-858.
53. Krall, E.A., Wehler, C., Garcia, R.I., Harris, S.S., and Dawson-Hughes, B. (2001) Calcium and vitamin D supplements reduce tooth loss in the elderly. Am. J. Med. 111(6), 452-456.
54. Vieth, R., Ladak, Y., and Walfish, P.G. (2003) Age-related changes in the 25-hydroxyvitamin D versus parathyroid hormone relationship suggest a different reason why older adults require more vitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88(1), 185-191.
55. MacLaughlin, J. and Holick, M.F. (1985) Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J. Clin. Invest. 76, 1536-1538.
56. Lips, P., Chapuy, M.C., Dawson-Hughes, B., and Pols, H.A.P. (1995) International comparison of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D measurements. J. Bone Miner. Res. 10(Suppl), S49.
57. Sullivan, S.S., Rosen, C.J., Chen, T.C., and Holick, M.F. (2003) Seasonal Changes in Serum 25(OH)D in Adolescent Girls in Maine. American Society of Biomedical Research, Annual Meeting (Abstr) M470. p. S407.
58. Clemens, T.L., Adams, J.S., Henderson, S.L., and Holick, M.F. (1982) Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3. Lancet 1, 74-76.
59. Nesby-O'Dell, S., Scanlon, K., Cogswell, M., Gillespie, C., Hollis, B., and Looker, A. (2002) Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and determinants among African American and white women of reproductive age: third national health and nutrition examination survey 1988-1994. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76, 187-192.
60. Hollis, B.W., Roos, B.A., Draper, H.H., and Lambert, P.W. (1981) Vitamin D and its metabolites in human and bovine milk. J. Nutr. 111, 1240-1248.
61. Johnson, J.L., Mistryl, V.V., Vukovich, M.D., Hogie-Lorenzen, T., Hollis, B.W., and Specker, B.L. (2005) Bioavailability of vitamin D from fortified process cheese and effects on vitamin D status in the elderly. J. Dairy Sci. 88, 2295-2301.
62. Wasserman, R.H., Brindak, M.E., Buddle, M.M., Cai, Q., Davis, F.C., Fullmer, C.S., Gilmour, R.F., Jr., Hu, C., Mykkanen, H.M., and Tapper, D.N. (1990) Recent studies on the biological actions of vitamin D on intestinal transport and the electrophysiology of peripheral nerve and cardiac muscle. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 332, 99-126.
63. Rushton, C. (1978) Vitamin D hydroxylation in youth and old age. Age Ageing 7(2), 91-95.
64. Hollander, D. (1981) Intestinal absorption of vitamins A, E, D, and K. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 97(4), 449-462.
65. Baker, M.R., Peacock, M., and Nordin, B.E. (1980) The decline in vitamin D status with age. Age Ageing 9(4), 249-252.
66. Fleming, B.B. and Barrows, C.H., Jr. (1982) The influence of aging on intestinal absorption of vitamins A and D by the rat. Exp. Gerontol. 17(2), 115-120.
67. Horst, R.L. and Littledike, E.T. (1982) Comparison of plasma concentrations of vitamin D and its metabolites in young and aged domestic animals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 73(3), 485-489.
68. Onishi, T., Lee, S., Kohno, K., Morimoto, S., Imanaka, S., Kumahara, Y., Okada, Y., and Seino, Y. (1983) Aging and vitamin D. Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi 20(2), 112-115.
69. Thomas, M.L., Armbrecht, H.J., and Forte, L.R. (1984) Effects of long-term vitamin D deficiency and response to vitamin D repletion in the mature and aging male and female rat. Mech. Ageing Dev. 25(1-2), 161-175.
70. Benhamou, C.L., Tourliere, D., and Asselin, F. (1993) Influence of aging on vitamin D metabolism. Rev. Rhum. Ed. Fr. 60(6), 445-449.
71. Fujita, T. (1985) Aging and calcium as an environmental factor. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. (Tokyo) 31(Suppl), S15-19.
72. Garcion, E., Wion-Barbot, N., Montero-Menei, C.N., Berger, F., and Wion, D. (2002) New clues about vitamin D functions in the nervous system. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 13(3), 100-105.
73. Garcion, E., Thanh, X.D., Bled, F., Teissier, E., Dehouck, M.P., Rigault, F., Brachet, P., Girault, A., Torpier, G., and Darcy, F. (1996) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates gamma 1 transpeptidase activity in rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. 216(3), 183-186.
74. Garcion, E., Sindji, L., Leblondel, G., Brachet, P., and Darcy, F. (1999) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates the synthesis of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and glutathione levels in rat primary astrocytes. J. Neurochem. 73(2), 859-866.
75. DeLuca, H.F. and Cantorna, M.T. (2001) Vitamin D: its role and uses in immunology. FASEB J. 15, 2579-2585.
76. Norris, J.M. (2001) Can the sunshine vitamin shed light on type 1 diabetes? Lancet 358(9292), 1476-1478.
77. Lemire, J. (2000) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-a hormone with immunomodulatory properties. Z. Rheumatol. 59(Suppl 1), 24-27.
78. Hein, G. and Oelzner, P. (2000) Vitamin D metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis: findings - hypotheses - consequences. Z. Rheumatol. 59(Suppl 1), 28-32.
79. Huisman, A.M., White, K.P., Algra, A., Harth, M., Vieth, R., Jacobs, J.W., Bijlisma, J.W., and Bell, D.A. (2001) Vitamin D levels in women with systemic lupus erythematosus and fibromyalgia. J. Rheumatol. 28(11), 2535-2539.
80. Barnes, T.C. and Bucknall, R.C. (2004) Vitamin D deficiency in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43(3), 393-394.
81. Garcion, E., Nataf, S., Berod, A., Darcy, F., and Brachet, P. (1997) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat central nervous system during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 45(2), 255-267.
82. Garcion, E., Sindji, L., Nataf, S., Brachet, P., Darcy, F., and Montero-Menei, C.N. (2003) Treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rat by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 leads to early effects within the central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 105(5), 438-448.
83. Martinelli, P., Giuliani, S., Ippoliti, M., Martinelli, A., Sforza, A., and Ferrari, S. (1993) Familial idiopathic striopallido-dentate calcifications with late onset extrapyramidal syndrome. Mov. Disord. 8(2), 220-222.
84. Michelson, D., Stratakis, C., Hill, L., Reynolds, J., Galliven, E., Chrousos, G., and Gold, P. (1996) Bone mineral density in women with depression. N. Engl. J. Med. 335(16), 1176-1181.
85. Schneider, B., Weber, B., Frensch, A., Stein, J., and Fritz, J. (2000) VitaminD in schizophrenia, major depression, and alcoholism. J. Neural Transm. 107(7), 839-842.
86. Keddie, K.M. (1987) Severe depressive illness in the context of hypervitaminosis D. Br. J. Psychiatry 150, 394-396.
87. Stumpf, W.E. and Privette, T.H. (1989) Light, Vit-D and psychiatry: role of 1,25 dihydroxyVit-D3 (soltriol) in etiology and therapy of seasonal affective disorder and other mental processes. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 97(3), 285-294.
88. Partonen, T. (1998) Vitamin D and serotonin in winter. Med. Hypotheses 51(3), 267-268.
89. Lansdowne, A.T. and Provost, S.C. (1998) Vitamin D3 enhances mood in healthy subjects during winter. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 135(4), 319-323.
90. Gloth, F.M., III, Alan, W., and Hollis, B. (1999) Vit-D vs broad spectrum phototherapy in the treatment of seasonal affective disorder. J. Nutr. Health Aging 3(1), 5-7.
91. Harris, S. and Dawson-Hughes, B. (1993) Seasonal mood changes in 250 normal women. Psychiatry Res. 49(1), 77-87.
92. Dawson-Hughes, B., Harris, S.S., and Dallal, G.E. (1997) Plasma calcidiol, season and serum parathyroid hormone concentrations in healthy elderly men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65, 67-71.
93. McGrath, J. (1999) Hypothesis: is low prenatal vitamin D a risk-modifying factor for schizophrenia? Schizophr. Res. 40(3), 173-177.
94. Kendell, R.E. and Adams, W. (2002) Exposure to sunlight, vitamin D and schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 54(3), 193-198.
95. Ozer, S., Ulusahin, A., Ulusoy, S., Okur, H., Coskun, T., Tuncali, T., Gogus, A., and Akarsu, A.N. (2004) Is vitamin D hypothesis for schizophrenia valid? Independent segregation of psychosis in a family with vitamin-D-dependent rickets type IIA. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 28(2), 255-266.
96. McGrath, J. (2001) Does 'imprinting' with low prenatal vitamin D contribute to the risk of various adult disorders? Med. Hypotheses 56(3), 367-371.
97. McGrath, J., Saari, K., Hakko, H., Jokelainen, J., Jones, P., Jarvelin, M.R., Chant, D., and Isohanni, M. (2004) Vitamin D supplementation during the first year of life and risk of schizophrenia: a Finnish birth cohort study. Schizophr. Res. 67(2-3), 237-245.
98. Mackay-Sim, A., Feron, F., Eyles, D., Burne, T., and McGrath, J. (2004) Schizophrenia, vitamin D, and brain development. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 59, 351-380.
99. Eyles, D., Brown, J., Mackay-Sim, A., McGrath, J., and Feron, F. (2003) Vitamin D3 and brain development. Neuroscience 118(3), 641-653.
100. Embry, A.F., Snowden, L.R., and Vieth, R. (2000) Vit-D and seasonal fluctuations of gadolinium-enhancing magnetic resonance imaging lesions in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 48, 271-272.
101. Auer, D.P., Schmann, E.M., Kumpfel, T., Gossl, C., and Trenkwalder, C. (2000) Seasonal fluctuations of gondolinium-enhancing magnetic resonance imaging lesions in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 47, 276-277.
102. Kurtzke, J.F. (1977) Geography in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. 215, 1-26.
103. Hernan, M.A., Olek, M.J., and Ascherio, A. (1999) Geographic variation of MS incidence in two prospective studies of US women. Neurology 53, 1711-1718.
104. McLeod, J.G., Hammond, S.R., and Hallpike, J.F. (1994) Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Australia. With NSW and SA survey results. Med. J. Aust. 160, 117-122.
105. Hammond, S.R., English, D.R., and McLeod, J.G. (2000) The age-range of risk of developing multiple sclerosis: evidence from a migrant population in Australia. Brain 123, 968-974.
106. Fawcett, J. and Skegg, D.C.G. (1988) Geographic distribution of MS in New Zealand: evidence from hospital admissions and deaths. Neurology 38, 416-418.
107. Templer, D.I., Trent, N.H., Spencer, D.A., Trent, A., Corgiat, M.D., Mortensen, P.B., et al. (1992) Season of birth in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol. Scand. 85, 107-109.
108. Willer, C.J., Dyment, D.A., Risch, N.J., Sadovnick, A.D., and Ebers, G.C. (2003) Twin concordance and sibling recurrence rates in multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 100, 12877-12882.
109. Wiberg, M. and Templer, D.I. (1994) Season of birth in multiple sclerosis in Sweden: replication of Denmark findings. J. Orthomol. Med. 9, 71-74.
110. Kurtzke, J.F., Beebe, G.W., and Norman, J.E., Jr. (1979) Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in US veterans: 1. race, sex, and geographic distribution. Neurology 29, 1228-1235.
111. Dean, G. (1967) Annual incidence, prevalence, and mortality of multiple sclerosis in white South-African-born and in white immigrants to South Africa. BMJ 2, 724-730.
112. Sadovnick, A.D. and Yee, I.M. (1994) Season of birth in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol. Scand. 89, 190-191.
113. Salemi, G., Ragonese, P., Aridon, P., Reggio, A., Nicoletti, A., Buffa, D., et al. (2000) Is season of birth associated with multiple sclerosis? Acta Neurol. Scand. 101, 381-383.
114. Torrey, E.F., Miller, J., Rawlings, R., and Yolken, R.H. (2000) Seasonal birth patterns of neurological disorders. Neuroepidemiology 19, 177-185.
115. Willer, C.J., Dyment, D.A., Sadovnick, A.D., Rothwell, P.M., Murray, J., Ebers, G.C., and the Canadian Collaborative Study Group (2005) Timing of birth and risk of multiple sclerosis: population based study. BMJ 330(7483), 120.
116. Munger, K.L., Zhang, S.M., O'Reilly, E., Hernan, M.A., Olek, M.J., Willett, W.C., and Ascherio, A. (2004) Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis. Neurology 62, 60-65.
117. Schwarze, S. and Leweling, H. (2005) Multiple sclerosis and nutrition. Mult. Scler. 11(1), 24-32.
118. Nataf, S., Garcion, E., Darcy, F., Chabannes, D., Muller, J.Y., and Brachet, P. (1996) 1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 exerts regional effects in the central nervous system during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55(8), 904-914.
119. Davies, M., Kane, R., and Valentine, J. (1984) Impaired hearing in X-linked hypophosphataemic (vitamin-D-resistant) osteomalacia. Ann. Intern. Med. 100(2), 230-232.
120. Ikeda, K., Kusakari, J., Kobayashi, T., and Saito, Y. (1987) The effect of vitamin D deficiency on the cochlear potentials and the perilymphatic ionized calcium concentration of rats. Acta Otolaryngol. 435(Suppl), 64-72.
121. Brown, J., Bianco, J.I., McGrath, J.J., and Eyles, D.W. (2003) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces nerve growth factor, promotes neurite outgrowth and inhibits mitosis in embryonic rat hippocampal neurons. Neurosci. Lett. 343(2), 139-143.
122. Baudet, C., Chevalier, G., Chassevent, A., Canova, C., Filmon, R., Larra, F., Brachet, P., and Wion, D. (1996) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces programmed cell death in a rat glioma cell line. J. Neurosci. Res. 46(5), 540-550.
123. Veenstra, T.D., Fahnestock, M., and Kumar, R. (1998) An AP-1 site in the nerve growth factor promoter is essential for 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated nerve growth factor expression in osteoblasts. Biochemistry 37(17), 5988-5994.
124. Armbrecht, H.J., Boltz, M., Strong, R., Richardson, A., Bruns, M.E., and Christakos, S. (1989) Expression of calbindin-D decreases with age in intestine and kidney. Endocrinology 125(6), 2950-2956.
125. Hornig, M. and Amsterdam, J.D. (2003) Prolactin, growth hormone, insulin, glucagon and parathyroid hormone. Psychobiological and clinical implications. In Psychoneuroendocrinology - the Scientific Basis of Clinical Practice. Wolkowitz, O.M. and Rothschild, A.J., Eds. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, D.C. Chap. 5; pp. 123-125.
126. Ooms, M.E., Lips, P., Roos, J.C., et al. (1995) Vitamin D status and sex hormone binding globulin: determinants of bone turnover and bone mineral density in elderly women. J. Bone Miner. Res. 10, 1177-1184.
127. Need, A.G., Horowitz, M., Morris, H.A., and Nordin, B.C. (2000) Vitamin D status: effects on parathyroid hormone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71, 1577-1581.
128. Chapuy, M.C., Preziosi, P., Maamer, M., et al. (1997) Prevalence of Vit-D insufficiency in an adult normal population. Osteoporos. Int. 7, 439-443.
129. Haden, S., Fuleihan, G.E., Angell, J.E., Cotran, N.M., and Le- Boff, M.S. (1999) Calcidiol and PTH levels in women attending an osteoporosis program. Calcif. Tissue Int. 64, 275-279.
130. Peleg, S., Abruzzese, R.V., Cooper, C.W., and Gagel, R.F. (1993) Down-regulation of calcitonin gene transcription by vitamin D requires two widely separated enhancer sequences. Mol. Endocrinol. 7(8), 999-1008.
131. Jehan, F., Neveu, I., Barbot, N., Binderup, L., Brachet, P., and Wion, D. (1991) MC903, an analogue of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, increases the synthesis of nerve growth factor. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 208(2), 189-191.
132. Wion, D., MacGrogan, D., Neveu, I., Jehan, F., Houlgatte, R., and Brachet, P. (1991) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a potent inducer of nerve growth factor synthesis. J. Neurosci. Res. 28(1), 110-114.
133. Baas, D., Prufer, K., Ittel, M.E., Kuchler-Bopp, S., Labourdette, G., Sarlieve, L.L., and Brachet, P. (2000) Rat oligodendrocytes express the vitamin D(3) receptor and respond to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Glia 31(1), 59-68.
134. Naveilhan, P., Neveu, I., Wion, D., and Brachet, P. (1996) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3, an inducer of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. Neuroreport 7(13), 2171-2175.
135. Naveilhan, P., Neveu, I., Baudet, C., Funakoshi, H., Wion, D., Brachet, P., and Metsis, M. (1997) 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates the expression of the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 44(1), 178.
136. Wang, J.Y., Wu, J.N., Cherng, T.L., Hoffer, B.J., Chen, H.H., Borlongan, C.V., and Wang, Y. (2001) Vitamin D3 attenuates 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Brain Res. 904(1), 67-75.
137. Wang, Y., Chiang, Y.H., Su, T.P., Hayashi, T., Morales, M., Hoffer, B.J., and Lin, S.Z. (2000) Vitamin D3 attenuates cortical infarction induced by middle cerebral arterial ligation in rats. Neuropharmacology 39(5), 873-880.
138. Brewer, L.D. et al. (2001) Vitamin D hormone confers neuroprotection in parallel with downregulation of L-type calcium channel expression in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci. 21, 98-108.
139. Garcion, E., Sindji, L., Montero-Menei, C., Andre, C., Brachet, P., and Darcy, F. (1998) Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase during rat brain inflammation: regulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Glia 22(3), 282-294.
140. Landfield, P.W. and Cadwallader-Neal, L. (1998) Long term treatment with calcitriol (1,25(OH)2 vit D3) retards a biomarker of hippocampal aging. Neurobiol. Aging 19, 469-477.
141. Neveu, I., Barbot, N., Jehan, F., Wion, D., and Brachet, P. (1991) Antagonistic effects of dexamethasone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the synthesis of nerve growth factor. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 78(3), R1-6.
142. Pettifor, J.M. (2000) What is the optimal 25(OH)D level for bone in children? In Vitamin D Endocrine System: Structural, Biological, Genetic and Clinical Aspects. Norman, A.W., Bouillon, R., and Thomasset, M., Eds. University of California, Riverside. pp. 903-907.
143. Holick, M.F. (2004) Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type I diabetes, heart disease and osteoporosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79, 362-371.
144. Plehwe, W.E. (2003) Vitamin D deficiency in the 21st century: an unnecessary pandemic? Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 59, 22-24.
145. Johnson, K. and Kligman, E.W. (1992) Preventive nutrition: disease-specific dietary interventions for older adults. Geriatrics 47(11), 39-40, 45-49.
146. Glass, A.R. and Eil, C. (1986) Ketoconazole-induced reduction in serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 63(3), 766-769.
147. Samina Riaz, S. and Tomlinson, D.R. (2000) Pharmacological modulation of nerve growth factor synthesis: a mechanistic comparison of vitamin D receptor and beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 85(1-2), 179-188.
148. Fukoka, M., Sakurai, K., Ohta, T., Kiyoki, M., and Katayama, I. (2001) Tacalcitol, an active vitamin D3, induces nerve growth factor production in human epidermal keratinocytes. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 14(4), 226-233.
149. Berdal, A. (1992) Vitamin D: biosynthesis, metabolism and mechanism of action at the cellular level. J. Biol. Buccale 20(2), 71-83. [French]