Feminist influences on the United Nations human rights treaty bodies

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 148-185

  Johnstone, Rachael Lorna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AKUREYRI   (Iceland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FEMINISM; HUMAN RIGHTS; UNITED NATIONS;

EID: 33645219835     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2006.0005     Document Type: Article

References (319)

1. For the leading early article on this issue, see Hilary Charlesworth et al., Feminist Approaches to International Law, 85 A.J.I.L. 613 (1991).
2. For a brief summary of the developments of international human rights law in response to these criticisms and the challenges ahead, see Hilary Charlesworth, General Introduction, in 1 Women and International Human Rights Law, at xix-xxiii (Kelly D. Askin & Dorean M. Koenig eds., 1999) [hereinafter 1 Women And International Human Rights Law];
3. Christine Chinkin, Feminist Interventions into International Law, 19 Adelaide L. Rev. 13 (1997).
4. See infra text § 11, for the United Nations definition of gender mainstreaming and a brief explanation of what it means in practice.
5. The Committee for the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families is excluded, as it has not had time since coming into force to engage in extensive dialogue with state parties. International Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, G.A. Res. 45/158, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Supp. No. 49A at 262, U.N. Doc. A/45/49 (1990)(entered into force 1 July 2003) [hereinafter MWC].
6. The Committee for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women is also not considered as it has always had a "gender-focus" and a substantial representation of women amongst its committee members. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, adopted 18 Dec. 1979, G.A. Res. 34/180, U.N. GAOR, 34th Sess., Supp. No. 46, U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (1980) (entered into force 3 Sept. 1981), 1249 U.N.T.S. 13, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980) [hereinafter CEDAW].
7. For a brief overview with specific reference to the work of the Treaty Bodies, see Anne Gallagher, Contemporary Forms of Female Slavery, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law 487, 516-19 (Kelly D. Askin & Dorean M. Koenig eds., 2000) [hereinafter 2 Women and International Human Rights Law].
8. Dianne Otto, Rethinking the "Universality" of Human Rights Law 29 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 1, 5-6 (1997-1998);
9. Charlotte Bunch et al., Making the Global Local: International Networking for Women's Human Rights, in 1 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 1, at 91-92.
10. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted 10 Dec. 1984, G.A. Res. 39/46, U.N. GAOR, 39th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/46 (1984) art. 1(1) (entered into force 26 June 1987),
11. reprinted in 23 I.L.M. 1027 (1984),
12. substantive changes noted in 24 I.L.M. 535 (1985) [hereinafter Torture Convention];
13. see also infra text § IV;
14. Catharine A. MacKinnon, On Torture: A Feminist Perspective on Human Rights, in Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Challenge (Kathleen E. Mahoney & Paul Mahoney eds., 1993).
15. Dianne Otto, Holding Up Half the Sky, But for Whose Benefit?: A Critical Analysis of the Fourth World Conference on Women, 6 Austl. Feminist L. J. 7, 11-15 (1996).
16. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 71, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 Am. J. Int'l L. 127 (Supp. 1949) [hereinafter UDHR];
17. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, 49, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976) [hereinafter ICESCR];
18. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976) [hereinafter ICCPR].
19. See Barbara Stark, The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as a Resource for Women, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, at 209, 230.
20. ICCPR, supra note 8, art. 2(1);
21. ICESCR, supra note 8, art. 2(1).
22. The assertion that economic, social and cultural rights are only standards for progressive implementation, as opposed to the immediately binding and enforceable character of civil and political rights existed from the origins of the drafting of the two International Covenants, ICCPR and ICESCR. See Annotations on the Text of the Draft International Covenants on Human Rights, Report by the Secretary-General, U.N. GAOR, 10th Sess., Annex 50, ¶ 9, U.N. Doc. A/2929 (1955).
23. Stark, supra note 8, at 211.
24. CEDAW, supra note 3.
25. The CEDAW Committee (and the Division for the Advancement of Women) moved to New York in 1993.
26. Ved P. Nanda & Dawn M. McKnight, The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, 283, 285-86.
27. Rosa Ehrenreich Brooks, Feminism and International Law: An Opportunity for Transformation, 14 Yale J.L. & Feminism 345, 350 (2002).
28. Id. at 345-47;
29. Charlesworth et al., supra note 1, at 622.
30. See Charlesworth et al., supra note 1, at 625-30;
31. see also, Christine Chinkin, A Critique of the Public/Private Dimension, 10 Eur. J. Int'l. L. 387 (1999).
32. Brooks, supra note 15, at 353.
33. Berta Esperanza Hernández-Truyol, Human Rights Through a Gendered Lens: Emergence, Evolution, Revolution, in 1 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 1, at 3, 37;
34. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Broken Glass: Women, Violence and the Rule of Law, Rule of Law Lecture Series, 10-12 (Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 3 Oct. 2001).
35. UDHR, supra note 8, art. 2.
36. ICESCR, supra note 8, art. 3;
37. ICCPR, supra note 8, art. 3.
38. See Andrew Byrnes, Using International Human Rights Law and Procedures to Advance Women's Human Rights, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, at 79, 108-09.
39. See, e.g., Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Annex I (Beijing Declaration); Annex II (Platform for Action), U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.177/20 (1995); a brief summary of the critical areas of concern can be found at ¶ 44.
40. See Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997, Mainstreaming the gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the United Nations System, U.N. GAOR, 52nd Sess., Supp. No. 3, IVA, U.N. Doc. A/52/ 3 (1997) [hereinafter ECOSOC Mainstreaming].
41. Andrew Byrnes & Jane Connors, Enforcing the Human Rights of Women: A Complaints Procedure for the Women's Convention?, 21 Brook. J. Int'l L. 679, 711-12 (1996).
42. This tertiary understanding is also advocated by Patrick Macklem & Craig Scott, Constitutional Ropes of Sand or Justiciable Guarantees? Social Rights in a New South African Constitution, 141 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1, 72-84 (1992).
43. Velasquez Rodriguez, Case 4, Inter-Am. C.H.R. (Ser. C.), No. 4, ¶¶ 171-77 (1988).
44. ICESCR, supra note 8, art. 11(1).
45. See ECOSOC Mainstreaming, supra note 24.
46. See United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, Gender Mainstreaming: An Overview (2002).
47. ICESCR, supra note 8.
48. ICCPR, supra note 8.
49. Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted 20 Nov. 1989, G.A. Res. 44/25, U.N. GAOR, 44th Sess., Supp. No. 49, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989) (entered into force 2 Sept. 1990), reprinted in 28 I.L.M. 1448 (1989) [hereinafter Children's Convention].
50. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted 21 Dec. 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 (entered into force 4 Jan. 1969), reprinted in 5 I.L.M. 352 (1966) [hereinafter Race Convention].
51. Torture Convention, supra note 6.
52. CEDAW, supra note 3.
53. MWC, supra note 3.
54. Most notably excepted from this analysis are the Human Rights Commission and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
55. See Stark, supra note 8, at 241.
56. This should by no means discourage activists from using non rights-based discourses where these may be more effective. The rights language is one, potentially powerful language, but it is not exclusive. See infra text § IV.
57. Jessica Neuwirth, The Role of Activism in the Enforcement of International Human Rights Law, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, at 471-72.
58. See Byrnes, supra note 22, at 105, 116;
59. see also Stark, supra note 8, at 240.
60. Review of Recent Developments Relating to the Work of Treaty Bodies, Fifteenth Meeting of the Human Rights Treaty, 23-27 June 2003, ¶ 46, U.N. Doc. HRI/MC/2003/2 (2003).
61. The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, General Comment No. 14, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. On Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 22nd Sess., Agenda Item 3, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000) [hereinafter General Comment No. 14], reprinted in Compilation Of General Comments And General Recommendations Adopted By Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 (2003) [hereinafter Compilation of General Comments 2003);
62. Women and Health, General Recommendation No. 24, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, 23d Sess. (1988) reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, id. at 271.
63. General Comment No. 16 (1988) U.N. Hum. Rts. Comm., 23d Sess., reprinted in Compilation Of General Comments And General Recommendations Adopted By Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 21 (1994) [hereinafter] Compilation of General Comments 1994].
64. HIV/AIDS and the Right of the Child, General Comment No. 3, Comm. on the Rts. of the Child, 32d Sess, U.N. Doc. CRC/GC/2003/3 (2003) [hereinafter General Comment No. 3].
65. Discrimination against Roma, General Recommendation No. XXVII, Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 57th Sess., Annex V, 154, U.N. Doc. A/55/18 (2000), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 216.
66. Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 5, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 11th Sess., 19, U.N. Doc. E/1995/22 (1995), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 24.
67. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 20; See infra text § IV.
68. Id.
69. Currently, the ICCPR, the Torture Convention, the Race Convention and CEDAW have such arrangements. These are, respectively: Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976), reprinted in 6 I.L.M. 383 (1967)
70. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 22;
71. Race Convention, supra note 33, art. 14;
72. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. Res. 4, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 5, U.N. Doc. A/54/49 (2000).
73. There is also some debate about creating a procedure for the CESCR. The overwhelming majority of complaints go to the Human Rights Committee. Steiner and Alston suggest that this is because the ICCPR overlaps with many of the provisions of the Torture and Race Conventions and that it is more widely understood. See Henry J. Steiner & Philip Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals 777 (2d ed. 2000). The CEDAW Committee's communications mechanism came into force in 2000 and that Committee is only beginning to hear communications.
74. ICESCR, supra note 8.
75. Office for the High Commission for Human Rights, Treaty Body Database: Committee Members (25 June 2004), available at www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/ Committeefrset?OpenFrameSet [hereinafter Committee Members].
76. The Secretary-General, Compilation of Guidelines on the Form and Content of Reports to be submitted by States Parties to the International Human Rights Treaties, Ch. II, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/2/Rev.1 (9 May 2001) [hereinafter Report Guidelines].
77. See, e.g., Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cultural Rts., 54th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶ 214 (Dominican Republic), U.N. Doc. E/1998/22 (1998) [hereinafter Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions];
78. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cultural Rts., 55th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶ 152 (Poland), U.N. Doc. E/1999/22 (1999) [hereinafter Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions];
79. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cultural Rts., 56th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶ 79 (Iceland), U.N. Doc. E/2000/22 (2000) [hereinafter Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions];
80. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Report on the Twenty-Second Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cultural Rts., 57th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶ 383 (Australia), U.N. Doc. E/2001/22 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions];
81. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. and Cultural Rts., 58th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶ 117f (China: Hong Kong Special Administrative Region), ¶ 288 (Bolivia), ¶¶ 335, 342 (Senegal) U.N. Doc. E/2002/22 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions].
82. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 103 (Russia);
83. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 76 (Sri Lanka), ¶ 183 (Netherlands), ¶ 293 (Cyprus);
84. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth, and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 89 (Venezuela), ¶ 587 (Japan).
85. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 145 (Poland), ¶ 319 (Germany), ¶ 475 (Belgium);
86. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54 ¶ 121 (Italy), ¶ 345 (Kyrgyzstan);
87. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 89 (Venezuela), ¶ 317 (Togo), ¶ 492 (Ukraine).
88. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 238 (Dominican Republic), ¶ 297 (United Kingdom);
89. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 145 (Poland), ¶ 287 (Cyprus);
90. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 330 (Cameroon);
91. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 120 (Italy), ¶ 162 (Egypt);
92. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 595 (Japan).
93. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 141 (Peru).
94. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Session, supra note 54, ¶ 267 (Iraq);
95. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 169 (Tunisia), ¶ 206 (Solomon Islands);
96. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 166 (Egypt).
97. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 339 (Azerbaijan);
98. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 114 (Nigeria);
99. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ ¶ 305-39 (Armenia);
100. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ ¶ 155-58 (Egypt);
101. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 278 (Bolivia).
102. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 231 (Dominican (Republic)
103. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 116 (Nigeria); ¶ 173 (Tunisia).
104. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 79 (Sri Lanka); ¶ 350 (Switzerland)
105. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 160 (Poland);
106. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 159 (Egypt), ¶ 234 (Jordan).
107. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 121 (Nigeria);
108. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 444 (Finland), ¶ 476 (Belgium).
109. Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 73 (Zimbabwe);
110. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 199 (Solomon Islands);
111. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 233 (Jordan), ¶ 520 (Morocco);
112. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 200, 226 (Korea).
113. See, e.g., Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, List of issues: Iceland, U.N. ESCOR, ¶ 4, U.N. Doc E/C.12/Q/ICE/2 (2003);
114. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, List of Issues: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, U.N. ESCOR, ¶ 13, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/Q/UK/2, (2001).
115. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, List of issues: Trinidad and Tobago, U.N. ESCOR, ¶ 23, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/Q/T&T/1 (2001).
116. Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Cultural and Social Rights, List of issues: Japan, U.N. ESCOR, ¶ 27, U.N. Doc. E/ C.12/Q/JAP/1 (2000).
117. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 668.
118. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54 ¶ 223, 249.
119. The Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights of Older Persons, General Comment No. 6, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 13th Sess., ¶ 20, U.N. Doc. E/1996/22 (1996), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 34.
120. Forced Evictions, and the Right to Adequate Housing, General Comment No. 7, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 16th Sess., ¶ 10, Annex IV at 113, U.N. Doc. E/1998/22 (1997), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 45.
121. General Comment No. 14, supra note 43, ¶ 14,
122. Id. ¶ 35.
123. The Right to Education, General Comment No. 13, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 21 st Sess., ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/10(1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 70.
124. Id. ¶ 30.
125. ICCPR, supra note 8, arts. 2, 3.
126. Committee Members, supra note 52.
127. Report Guidelines, supra note 53, Ch. III.
128. See, e.g., Human Rights Committee, Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 53rd Sess. Supp. No. 40, ¶ 122 (Sudan), ¶ 189 (Cyprus), ¶ 396 (Tanzania), U.N. Doc. A/53/40 (1998) [hereinafter Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions];
129. Human Rights Committee, Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess. Supp. No. 40, ¶ 212 (Chile), U.N. Doc. A/54/40 (1999) [hereinafter Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions];
130. Human Rights Committee, Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 55th Sess. Supp. No. 40, ¶ 323 (Mongolia), ¶ 400 (Kyrgyzstan), U.N. Doc. A/55/40 (2000) [hereinafter Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions];
131. Human Rights Committee, Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess. Supp. No. 40 ¶ 73(15) (Denmark), U.N. Doc. A/56/40 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions];
132. Human Rights Committee, Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 57th Sess. Supp. No. 40, ¶ 83(7) (Yemen), U.N. Doc. A/57/40 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions].
133. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 61 (Senegal), ¶ 284 (Ecuador);
134. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 211 (Chile), ¶ 280 (Costa Rica);
135. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 100 (Morocco);
136. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 74(14) (Argentina), ¶ 76(20) (Peru).
137. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 404 (Tanzania);
138. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 161 (Japan).
139. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 80 (Jamaica), ¶ 168 (Lithuania);
140. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 172 (Japan);
141. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 365 (Guyana);
142. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 74(15) (Argentina);
143. Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 79(7) (Sweden),
144. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 125 (Sudan).
145. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 133 (Sudan).
146. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 168 (Lithuania), ¶ 312 (Israel);
147. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 171 (Japan), ¶ 308 (Cambodia);
148. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 403 (Kyrgyzstan).
149. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 354 (Algeria);
150. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 271 (Congo).
151. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 93 (Belgium), ¶ 287 (Costa Rica), ¶ 327 (Mexico);
152. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 77(24) (Venezuela).
153. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 121 (Sudan);
154. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 323 (Mongolia).
155. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 263 (Finland);
156. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 62 (Iceland), ¶ 110 (Armenia), ¶ 329 (Mexico);
157. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 249 (Hong Kong);
158. Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 76(9) (Switzerland). From these examples, it becomes apparent that the distinction between the second and third level of human rights is not a clear one. Sexual harassment is a secondary level violation of human rights - i.e., it is a direct assault on human rights from a private citizen. It may even be of the primary level, if the violator is a state employee. Yet, it also has repercussions at the third level: women do not enjoy their rights to equal pay in employment. A proportion of the pay gap is attributable to direct discrimination and harassment, however a large part is a social result of a number of compounding factors, for which no single person can be held "blameworthy."
159. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 380 (Macedonia);
160. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 99 (Morocco), ¶ 249 (Hong Kong).
161. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 132 (Sudan);
162. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 110 (Armenia);
163. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 363 (Guyana);
164. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 77(21) (Venezuela), ¶ 80(21) (Croatia), ¶ 83(12) (Czech Republic);
165. Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 75(15) (United Kingdom).
166. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 242 (Canada);
167. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 401 (Kyrgyzstan).
168. See, e.g., Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶¶ 203-33 (Zimbabwe).
169. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ ¶ 460-61 (Kuwait);
170. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 83(12) (Czech Republic).
171. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 263 (Finland);
172. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 62 (Iceland).
173. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 242 (Canada).
174. See generally, Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80;
175. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80;
176. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80;
177. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80;
178. Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, supra note 80.
179. HRC General Comment No. 28, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003 General Comments, supra note 43.
180. Id. ¶ 10
181. Id. ¶ 11
182. Id. ¶ 12
183. Id. ¶ 16
184. Id. ¶ 18.
185. Id. ¶ 3.
186. HRC General Comment No. 27, reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, ¶ 6.
187. Id. ¶ 18.
188. Children's Convention, supra note 32.
189. Id. art. 18.
190. Id. art. 24.
191. Committee Members, supra note 52.
192. Report Guidelines, supra note 53, Chapter VII.
193. See, e.g., Committee on the Rights of the Child, Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 53d Sess., Supp. No. 41, ¶ 298 (Nigeria), ¶ 739 (Ghana), U.N. Doc. A/53/41 (1998) [hereinafter Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions];
194. Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Thirty-First Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 31st Sess., ¶ 266 (Sudan), U.N Doc. CRC/C/121 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Thirty-First Session];
195. Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Thirty-Third Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 33d Sess., ¶ 27 (Eritrea), U.N Doc. CRC/C/132 (2003) [hereinafter Report on the Thirty-Third Session].
196. See, e.g., Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113, ¶ 72 (Zimbabwe), ¶ 238 (Cyprus);
197. Report on the Thirty-First Session, supra note 113, ¶ 243 (Sudan).
198. See, e.g., Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113, ¶ 339 (Uruguay), ¶ 467 (Bulgaria), ¶ 539 (Panama);
199. Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Thirtieth Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 30th Sess., ¶ 148 (Niger), U.N. Doc. CRC/C/118 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Thirtieth Session].
200. See, e.g., Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113, ¶ 50 (Lebanon), ¶ 172 (Nepal), ¶ 439 (Slovenia), ¶ 657 (New Zealand);
201. Report on the Thirty-Third Session, supra note 113, ¶ 496 (Morocco).
202. See, e.g., Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113, ¶ 116 (China), ¶ 421 (Mauritius), ¶ 541 (Panama), ¶ 585 (Myanmar);
203. Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Thirty-Second Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 32d Sess., ¶ 452 (Haiti), U.N. Doc. CRC/C/124 (2003) [hereinafter Report on the Thirty-Second Session].
204. See, e.g., Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113, ¶ 267 (Morocco), ¶ 622 (Syria), ¶ 782 (Bangladesh), ¶ 881 (Algeria).
205. See, e.g., id. ¶ 150 (Nepal), ¶ 301 (Nigeria), ¶ 503 (Egypt), ¶ 740 (Ghana);
206. Report on the Thirty-Third Session, supra note 113, ¶ 207 (Zambia).
207. Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Twenty-Fourth Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 24th Sess., ¶ 68, U.N. Doc. CRC/C/108 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Fourth Session].
208. See, e.g., the Committee refers to the work of CEDAW in the context of child and maternal poverty: Committee on the Rights of the Child, Report on the Thirty-Fourth Session, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, 34th Sess., ¶¶ 91, 93 (Canada), U.N. Doc. CRC/C/133 (2004) [hereinafter Report on the Thirty-Fourth Session]. The Committee refers to the work of the HRC and the CESCR in the context of the problem of domestic violence.
209. Id. ¶ 556.
210. The Aims of Education, General Comment No. 1, U.N. Comm. on the Rights of the Child, ¶ 10, U.N. Doc. CRC/GC/2001/1 (2001).
211. General Comment No. 3, supra note 45, ¶ 6.
212. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, adopted 25 May 2000, G.A. Res. 54/263, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 49 at 6, Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/54/49, Vol. III (2000) (entered into force 18 Jan. 2002).
213. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts, adopted 23 May 2000, G.A. Res. 54/263, U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 49 at 7, Annex I, U.N. Doc. A/54/49, Vol. III (2000) (entered into force 12 Feb. 2002).
214. Race Convention, supra note 33.
215. Report of the World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.189/12 (2002) [hereinafter World Conference on Racism]. With particular attention to Ch. I, at 26-66, ¶ 18 (domestic violence against indigenous women), ¶ 31 (women migrant workers), ¶ 53 (empowerment of women and full participation in public and private life), ¶ 54 (sexual violence), ¶ 63 (trafficking).
216. See id. Ch. I, at 26-66 (¶¶ 50, 59, 97).
217. Committee Members, supra note 52.
218. Report Guidelines, supra note 53, Ch. IV.
219. General Recommendation No. 22, Refugees and Displaced Persons, Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 49th Sess., annex VIII, 126, U.N. Doc. A/51/18 (1996), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 211.
220. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Summary Record of the 1260th Meeting, 52nd Sess., Agenda Item 7, U.N. Doc. CERD/C/SR.1260 (1998).
221. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 54th & 55th Sess., U.N. GAOR, Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 18, U.N. Doc. A/54/18 (1999).
222. Id. Ch. II A 5(54) (Decision on the Sudan).
223. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report on the Sixtieth and Sixty-First Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 57th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶¶ 15-19, U.N. Doc. A/57/18 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Sixtieth and Sixty-First Sessions].
224. (a) Early-warning measures: these would be aimed at addressing existing problems so as to prevent them from escalating into conflicts and would also include confidence-building measures to identify and support structures to strengthen racial tolerance and solidify peace in order to prevent a relapse into conflict in situations where it has occurred. In that connection, criteria for early warning could include some of the following concerns: the lack of an adequate legislative basis for defining and criminalizing all forms of racial discrimination, as provided for in the Convention; inadequate implementation of enforcement mechanisms, including the lack of recourse procedures; the presence of a pattern of escalating racial hatred and violence, or racist propaganda or appeals to racial intolerance by persons, groups or organizations, notably by elected or other officials; a significant pattern of racial discrimination evidenced in social and economic indicators; and significant flows of refugees or displaced persons resulting from a pattern of racial discrimination or encroachment on the lands of minority communities; (b) Urgent procedures: these would aim at responding to problems requiring immediate attention to prevent or limit the scale or number of serious violations of the Convention. Possible criteria for initiating an urgent procedure could include the presence of a serious, massive or persistent pattern of racial discrimination; or that the situation is serious and there is a risk of further racial discrimination. Id. ¶ 17. prevent them from escalating into conflicts and would also include confidence-building measures to identify and support structures to strengthen racial tolerance and solidify peace in order to prevent a relapse into conflict in situations where it has occurred. In that connection, criteria for early warning could include some of the following concerns: the lack of an adequate legislative basis for defining and criminalizing all forms of racial discrimination, as provided for in the Convention; inadequate implementation of enforcement mechanisms, including the lack of recourse procedures; the presence of a pattern of escalating racial hatred and violence, or racist propaganda or appeals to racial intolerance by persons, groups or organizations, notably by elected or other officials; a significant pattern of racial discrimination evidenced in social and economic indicators; and significant flows of refugees or displaced persons resulting from a pattern of racial discrimination or encroachment on the lands of minority communities; (b) Urgent procedures: these would aim at responding to problems requiring immediate attention to prevent or limit the scale or number of serious violations of the Convention. Possible criteria for initiating an urgent procedure could include the presence of a serious, massive or persistent pattern of racial discrimination; or that the situation is serious and there is a risk of further racial discrimination. U.N. GAOR, 57th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶¶ 15-19, U.N. Doc A/57/18 [hereinafter Report on the Sixtieth and Sixty First Sessions]
225. General Recommendation No. XXV., Gender Related Dimensions of Racial Discrimination, 2000, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 56th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/55/18, annex V at 152 (2000), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI.6 at 214 (2003).
226. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, supra note 133, ¶¶ 424, 468.
227. Id. ¶ 155.
228. General Recommendation No. XXV, Gender Related Dimensions of Racial Discrimination, Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 56th Sess., annex V, 152, U.N. Doc. A/55/18 (2000), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 214.
229. Id. ¶ 2.
230. Id. ¶ 2.
231. Id. ¶ 4.
232. Id. ¶ 6.
233. Id. ¶ 5.
234. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶ 417 (Vietnam), U.N. Doc. A/56/18 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions].
235. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶ 417 (Vietnam), U.N. Doc. A/56/18 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions].
236. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶ 417 (Vietnam), U.N. Doc. A/56/18 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions].
237. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 54th & 55th Sess., U.N. GAOR, Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 18, U.N. Doc. A/54/18 (1999).
238. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Report on the Fifty-Sixth and Fifty-Seventh Sessions, U.N. GAOR, 55th Sess., Supp. No. 18, ¶ 265 (Sweden), U.N. Doc. A/55/18 (2000) [hereinafter Report on the Fifty-Sixth and Fifty-Seventh Sessions].
239. The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, General Comment No. 14, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. On Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 22nd Sess., Agenda Item 3, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000) [hereinafter General Comment No. 14], reprinted in Compilation Of General Comments And General Recommendations Adopted By Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 (2003) [hereinafter Compilation of General Comments 2003);
240. See, e.g., Report on the Fifty-Sixth and Fifty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 149, ¶ 265 (Slovakia);
241. Report on the Fifty-Eighth and Fifty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 14, ¶ 398 (United States);
242. Report on the Sixtieth and Sixty-First Sessions, supra note 135, ¶ 97 (Croatia), ¶ 422 (New Zealand).
243. General Recommendation No. 25, CERD, supra note 138.
244. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 1(1) (emphasis added).
245. See, e.g. Kathleen Mahoney, Theoretical Perspectives on Women's Human Rights and Strategies for their Implementation, 21 Brook J. Intl' L. 799, 847 (1996);
246. Chinkin, A Critique of the Public/Private Dimension, supra note 17, at 389.
247. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 16;
248. see also Andrew Byrnes, The Convention Against Torture, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, at 187.
249. Torture Convention, supra note 6, arts. 12, 13.
250. Committee Members, supra note 52.
251. Report Guidelines, supra note 53, Ch. VI.
252. Report of the Committee Against Torture (Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Sessions), U.N. GAOR, 55th Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶¶ 117, 130 (China), ¶ 118(d) (Netherlands), ¶ 39(1) (Armenia), ¶ 88(f) (Greece), U.N. Doc. A/55/44 (2000) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Sessions].
253. Id. ¶ 179 (United States), ¶ 187 (Netherlands).
254. Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture (Twenty-Fifth and Twenty-Sixth Sessions), U.N. GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶ 113(a) (Czech Republic), U.N. Doc. A/56/44 (2001) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Fifth and Twenty-Sixth Sessions].
255. Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture: Guatemala (Twentieth Session), U.N. GAOR, 53d Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶ 163-64, U.N. Doc. A/53/44 (1998).
256. Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture: Egypt, (Twenty-Second Session), U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶¶ 209, 212, U.N. Doc. A/54/44 (1999);
257. Concluding Observations of the Committee against Torture: Tunisia (Twenty-First Session), U.N. GAOR, 54th Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶¶ 99-100, U.N. Doc. A/54/44 (1998).
258. Concluding Observations of the Committee Against Torture: Egypt (Twenty-Second Session), supra note 163, ¶ 212.
259. Summary Record of the First Part of the 382nd Meeting: Egypt. Committee Against Torture, 15 Nov. 1999, 22d Sess., Agenda Item 5, ¶ 19, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.382 (1999).
260. Summary Record of the First Part (Public) of the 349th Meeting: Yugoslavia, Committee Against Torture, 10 June 1999, 21st Session, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.349 (1998).
261. Committee Against Torture, Summary Record of the 416th Meeting, 24th Session, Agenda Item 7, ¶ 11, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/SR.416 (2000).
262. Report on the Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 159, ¶ 122.
263. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 20.
264. Report on the Twenty-Fifth and Twenty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 161, ¶¶ 144-93, in particular ¶ 180.
265. Report of the Committee Against Torture (Twenty-Seventh & Twenty-Eighth Sess.), U.N. GAOR, 57th Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶¶ 123-95, U.N. Doc. A/57/44 (2002) [hereinafter Report on the Twenty-Seventh and Twenty-Eighth Sessions].
266. Report on Mexico Produced by the Committee Under Article 20 of the Convention, and a Reply from the Government of Mexico, Comm. Against Torture, 30th Sess., ¶ 90, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/75 (2003).
267. Id. ¶ 25.
268. Report on the Twenty-Seventh and Twenty-Eight Sessions, supra note 171, ¶¶ 65(c), 66(h).
269. Id. ¶¶ 92(e), 94(f).
270. Id. ¶ 58(m).
271. Id.
272. Torture Convention, supra note 6, art. 22.
273. Report of the Committee Against Torture, U.N. GAOR, Comm. Against Torture, 53d Sess., Supp. No. 44, ¶ 3, annex IX at 52, U.N. Doc. A 53/44 (1998), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments 2003, supra note 43, at 279.
274. See Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54;
275. Report on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions, supra note 54;
276. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54;
277. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54;
278. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54.
279. See also Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80;
280. Report on the Sixty-Fourth, Sixty-Fifth and Sixty-Sixth Sessions, supra note 80;
281. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80;
282. Report on the Seventieth, Seventy-First and Seventy-Second Sessions, supra note 80;
283. Report on the Seventy-Third, Seventy-Fourth and Seventy-Fifth Sessions, supra note 80;
284. Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113;
285. Report on the Thirty-Third Session, supra note 113.
286. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶¶ 332, 348 (Cameroon);
287. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶¶ 270, 281 (Mongolia);
288. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶¶ 491, 500 (Ukraine), ¶¶ 896, 908 (Croatia);
289. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Report on the Twenty-Eighth and Twenty-Ninth Sessions, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc., & Cultural Rts., 59th Sess., Supp. No. 2, ¶¶ 359, 381 (Poland), U.N. Doc. E/2003/22 (2003).
290. See Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, supra note 133, ¶¶ 424, 468.
291. See Report on the Twenty-Seventh and Twenty-Eighth Sessions, supra note 171, ¶¶ 65(c), 66(h) 92(e), 94(f) 58(m).
292. There is, of course, some irony in excluding consideration of the CEDAW Committee's work from this analysis: the Women's Committee is again "sidelined." On the other hand, an analysis of "gender mainstreaming" in the Women's Committee is superfluous. A suitable topic of further research would be the extent to which the CEDAW Committee addresses the requirements of state parties to respect, protect and fulfil human rights and to what degree they challenge the "public/private" dichotomy.
293. Report of the Secretary General, Improvements in the Status of Women in the United Nations System, U.N. GAOR 58th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/58/374 (17 Sept. 2003). For example, the U.N. has introduced "flexible working" in an attempt to make the environment for top level staff more attractive to women. Id. at 14.
294. Id. at 14.
295. See infra text § IV.
296. Christine Chinkin, Gender Inequality and International Human Rights Law, in Inequality, Globalization and World Politics 95, 121 (Andrew Hurrell & Ngaire Woods eds., 1999);
297. Andrew Byrnes, Using International Human Rights Law and Procedures to Advance Women's Human Rights, in 2 Women and International Human Rights Law, supra note 4, at 83.
298. For a useful summary of the critiques of rights as well as a defense of their use as a feminist tool, see Elizabeth Schneider, The Dialectic of Rights and Politics: Perspectives from the Women's Movement, 61 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 589 (1986).
299. See, e.g., Radhika Coomaraswamy, To Bellow Like a Cow: Women, Ethnicity and the Discourse of Rights, in Human Rights of Women: National and International Perspectives, 37, 39 (Rebecca Cooked., 1994).
300. See, e.g., Richard Allen Epstein, Property, Speech and the Politics of Distrust, 59 U. Chi. L. Rev. 41 (1992) on the need for individual property rights to be given strong Constitutional protection in the United States against competing claims of collective interest.
301. See also John O. McGinnis, Replies: A New Agenda for International Human Rights: Economic Freedom, 48 Cath. U. L. Rev. 1029 (1999) on the need for internationally protected rights to property and to economic rights such as freedom of contract. The agenda in both cases is to reduce Government intervention which would redistribute power and resources away from the wealthiest members of society.
302. See Report on the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 339 (Azerbaijan), ¶ 114 (Nigeria);
303. Report on the Twentieth and Twenty-First Sessions, supra note 54, ¶¶ 305-39 (Armenia);
304. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Sessions and Twenty-Fourth Sessions, supra note 54, ¶¶ 155-58 (Egypt);
305. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions, supra note 54, ¶ 278 (Bolivia);
306. Report on the Sixty-First, Sixty-Second and Sixty-Third Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 121 (Sudan);
307. Report on the Sixty-Seventh, Sixty-Eighth and Sixty-Ninth Sessions, supra note 80, ¶ 323 (Mongolia);
308. Reports on the Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Sessions, supra note 113;
309. Report on the Thirty-First Session, supra note 113;
310. Report on the Thirty-Third Session, supra note 113.
311. See Aileen McColgan, Women Under the Law: The False Promise of Human Rights 6 (2000).
312. David Fickling, Six Found Guilty in Pitcairn Sex Offences Trial, Guardian, 26 Oct. 2004. The culture argument was rejected by the Court;
313. Pitcairn Man Says Sex was Consensual, Guardian, 9 Oct. 2004.
314. See Kamala Visweswaran, Gendered States: Rethinking Culture as a Site of South Asian Human Rights Work, 26 Hum. Rts. Q. 483 (2004). Visweswaran notes that it is easy to blame culture as the reason women do not enjoy their rights, especially when dealing with distant environments, where these meet and reinforce "Western" prejudices about primitive or undeveloped cultures.
315. Id. at 498, 502, 505. States are often much more calculatingly complicit than just "tolerating" abuse, having their own interests in creating strong control over personal relations for minority groups to quiet their claims for more radical reform.
316. See Lisa Hajjar, Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis, 29 Law & Soc. Inquiry 1, at 6 (2004). This trading is not a feature only for Muslim societies; one can only imagine the bones that will be thrown to fundamentalist America following the 2004 election: gay marriage and safe abortion are likely to top the list.
317. On the role of international human rights law in protecting dogmatic and contested interpretations of religion from scrutiny, see Madhavi Sunder, Piercing the Veil, 112 Yale L.J. 1399 (2003).
318. On the alleged sex culture in the Pitcairn Islands and an argument that this was fabricated for the benefit of the trial, see Emily Fielden, He Knew it was Wrong, Guardian, 27 Oct. 2004, available at www.guardian.co.uk/parents/story/0,,1336783,00.html.
319. On the matter of jurisdiction, the appeal is pending to the Privy Council. In the interim, those found guilty are free. Matt Barnard, Pitcairn Men Can Challenge British Rule, Guardian, 12 Oct. 2004, available at www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,135605,00.html.