Quotas for women! The Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002

Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 141-159

  Mcharg, Aileen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33645140952     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: 14676478     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2006.00352.x     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918.
2. Gradually extended between 1870 and 1907.
3. The absence of an 'incumbent effect' in these new institutions was also crucial.
4. See, for example, J. Squires and M. Wickham-Jones, Women in Parliament: a Comparative Analysis (2001) 13. The type of electoral system used is also an important determinant - see further below.
5. The most recent year for which figures are available. Source: Fawcett Society, Women's Representation in British Politics, available at 〈www.fawcettsociety.org.uk〉.
6. Some countries require parties to promote gender parity, or even reserve a proportion of legislative seats for women - see P. Norris, Electoral Engineering: Voting Rules and Political Behaviour (2004) 191-8.
7. Subject to affirmative resolution - s. 3 SDECA.
8. Permitted by ss. 47-8 Sex Discrimination Act 1975.
9. D.T. Studlar and I. McAllister, 'Candidate Selection and Voting in the 1997 British General Election: Did Labour Quotas Matter?' (1998) 4 J. of Legislative Studies 72, at 74.
10. See C. Short, 'Women and the Labour Party'
11. and S. Perrigo, 'Women and Change in the Labour Party 1979-1995', both in Women in Politics, eds. J. Lovenduski and P. Norris (1996).
12. Having remained static at around 3 to 4 per cent from 1945 to 1983, the number of women MPs began to rise in 1987, to 6.3 per cent, and again in 1992, to 9.2 per cent.
13. J. Lovenduski, Feminising Politics (2005) 116-17.
14. M. Russell et al., Women's Political Participation in the UK (2002) 36.
15. The target had been for AWS to be employed in 40 seats.
16. Jepson & Dyas-Elliott v. the Labour Party [1996] IRLR 116.
17. Sawyer v. Ashan [2000] ICR 1.
18. Triesman v. Ali [2002] ECR 1026.
19. SCC, Scotland's Parliament, Scotland's Right (1995).
20. See R. Ali and C. O'Cinneide, Our House: Race and Representation in British Politics (2002) 68-9.
21. M. Russell, Women's Representation in UK Politics: What Can Be Done Within the Law? (2000) 9-10.
22. Russell et al., Women's Representation in UK Politics: What Can Be Done Within the Law? op. cit., n. 13, p. 29.
23. Russell, Women's Representation in UK Politics: What Can Be Done Within the Law? op. cit., n. 20, p. 14.
24. And a parallel provision to the Sex Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 1976.
25. See M. Russell and M. O'Cinneide, 'Positive Action to Promote Women in Politics: Some European Comparisons' (2003) 52 International and Comparative Law Q. 587, at 595.
26. See, also, H. Davis, 'All Women Shortlists in the Labour Party' [1995] Public Law 207, at 212.
27. Joint Committee on Human Rights (JCHR), Fourth Report, 2001-02, HL 44, HC 406.
28. Directive 76/207/EEC, OJ L 39/40, 14 February 1976.
29. Which includes the right to stand as a candidate: see, for example, Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v. Belgium 10 EHRR 1, 1987.
30. See, particularly, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 1249 UNTS 13 (1979), Art 4.
31. JCHR, Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v. Belgium op. cit., n. 26, para. 20.
32. Russell and O'Cinneide, Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v. Belgium op. cit., n. 24, p. 612.
33. JCHR, Mathieu-Mohin and Clerfayt v. Belgium op. cit., n. 26, para. 15.
34. See Lord Williams of Mostyn, 629 H.L Debs., col. WA 56 (28 November 2001);
35. 630 H.L. Debs., col. WA 31 (17 December 2001).
36. Russell, H.L. Debs. op. cit., n. 20, pp. 41-5.
37. Written Question No 1556/98 by Nel van Dijk to the Commission, OJ 354/111, 19 November 1998.
38. Relying on United States case law, the JCHR considered that parties are covered by s. 6 HRA. However, United Kingdom political parties have historically been regarded as private associations, and the government's view was that candidate selection is a private act, not a public function: Lord Williams, H.L. Debs. op. cit., n. 33.
39. Twinning was no longer feasible, given the presence of incumbents. The Scottish Socialist Party and Plaid Cymru also used quotas for these elections.
40. Quotas for local government elections also produced discontent - see 'Council Female Quota Angers MPs' Guardian, 23 May 2003.
41. Though the Scottish National Party at its 2004 Spring conference agreed to an unspecified plan to ensure 'a balanced list of candidates, particularly in regard to gender.'
42. See Fawcett Society, Liberal Democrat Candidates - Where are the Women?, available at 〈www.fawcettsociery.org.uk〉.
43. Squires and Wickham-Jones, Liberal Democrat Candidates - Where Are the Women? op. cit., n. 4, p. 74;
44. Lovenduski, Liberal Democrat Candidates - Where Are the Women? op. cit., n. 12, p. 70.
45. See T. May, 'Women in the House: the Continuing Challenge' (2004) 57 Parliamentary Affairs 844.
46. They gained only three women out of 33 new MPs.
47. Fawcett Society, Conservatives Candidates - Where are the Women?, available at 〈www.fawcettsociety.org.uk〉.
48. See Squires and Wickham-Jones, Conservatives Candidates - Where Are the Women? op. cit., n. 4, p. 36.
49. Lovenduski, Conservatives Candidates - Where Are the Women? op. cit., n. 12, p. 75.
50. P. Morris et al., Gender and Political Participation (2004) 9.
51. id.
52. See, for example, id., ch. 4.
53. id., pp. 23-5.
54. Lovenduski, Gender and Political Participation op. cit., n. 12, p. 71.
55. L. Shepherd-Robinson and J. Lovenduski, Women and Candidate Selection in British Political Parties (2002).
56. J. Elgood et al., Man Enough for the Job? A Study of Parliamentary Candidates (2002).
57. Shepherd-Robinson and Lovenduski, Man Enough for the Job? A Study of Parliamentary Candidates op. cit., n. 52, pp. 15, 29.
58. Lovenduski, Man Enough for the Job? A Study of Parliamentary Candidates op. cit., n. 12, p. 71.
59. See, for example, Lord Lester of Herne Hill, 630 H.L. Debs., cols 397-402 (20 December 2001);
60. A. Widdecombe, 373 H.C. Debs., cols, 352-4 (24 October 2001);
61. Elgood et al., H.C. Debs. op. cit., n. 53, pp. 102, 107-9.
62. Compare A. Phillips, The Politics of Presence (1995) 61.
63. Russell, The Politics of Presence op. cit., n. 20, p. 49.
64. Compare Elgood et al., The Politics of Presence op. cit., n. 53, pp. 78-82;
65. Shepherd-Robinson and Lovenduski, The Politics of Presence op. cit., n. 52, pp. 29-30, 41, 49.
66. See, for example, C. Pateman, The Sexual Contract (1988).
67. See, for example, A. Sreberny and K. Ross, 'Women MPs and the Media: Representing the Body Politic' in Lovenduski and Norris (eds.), The Sexual Contract op. cit., n. 10.
68. Lovenduski, The Sexual Contract op. cit., n. 12, pp. 47-56;
69. see, also, K. Ross, 'Women's Place in "Male" Space: Gender and Effect in Parliamentary Contexts' (2002) 55 Parliamentary Affairs 189;
70. 'Women MPs Bullied and Abused in Commons' Guardian, 7 December 2004.
71. Norris, Guardian op. cit., n. 6, p. 182.
72. Shepherd-Robinson and Lovenduski, Guardian op. cit., n. 52, pp. 40-1.
73. See, for example, Studlar and McAllister, Guardian op. cit., n. 9.
74. Squires and Wickham-Jones, Guardian op. cit., n. 4, p. 87.
75. Shepherd-Robinson and Lovenduski, Guardian op. cit., n. 52, pp. 21-2, 44-5, 51.
76. See Lovenduski, op. cit., n. 12, pp. 153-8.
77. V. Bottomley, 373 H.C. Debs., col, 347 (24 October 2001).
78. J. Squires, 'Quotas for Women: Fair Representation?' in Lovenduski and Norris (eds.), H.C. Debs. op. cit., n. 10, p. 78.
79. C.L. Bacchi, The Politics of Affirmative Action: 'Women', Equality and Category Politics (1996) 16.
80. Squires and Wickham-Jones, The Politics of Affirmative Action: 'Women', Equality and Category Politics op. cit., n. 4, p. iii;
81. Declaration of the 4th UN World Conference on Women Women in Power and Decision-Making (Beijing, September 2005).
82. Phillips, 4th un World Conference on Women Women in Power and Decision-making op. cit., n. 57, p. 183.
83. Lovenduski, 4th un World Conference on Women Women in Power and Decision-making op. cit., n. 12, p. 97.
84. A. Phillips, 'Democracy and Representation, Or, Why Should it Matter Who Our Representatives Are?' in Feminism and Politics, ed. A. Phillips (1998) 230-1.
85. Squires, Feminism and Politics op. cit., n. 70, p. 75.
86. See House of Lords Constitution Committee, Third Report, 2001-02, HL 42.
87. Phillips, Third Report op. cit., n. 57, p. 6.
88. id.
89. A.H. Birch, Representation (1971) 57.
90. H. Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (1967).
91. Squires, The Concept of Representation op. cit., n. 70, pp, 79-80;
92. Birch, The Concept of Representation op. cit., n. 80.
93. S. Childs 'In Their Own Words: New Labour Women and the Substantive Representation of Women' (2001) 3 Brit. J. of Politics and International Relations 173;
94. 'Hitting the Target; Are Labour Women MPs "Acting For" Women?' (2002)
95. Parliamentary Affairs 143. There is also a women's party - the Northern Ireland Women's Coalition - which has held seats in the Northern Ireland Assembly and in local government.
96. Birch, Parliamentary Affairs op. cit., n. 80, pp. 105, 107.
97. Phillips, Parliamentary Affairs op. cit., n. 57, p. 39;
98. J. Mansbridge, 'Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent "Yes"' (1999) 61 J. of Politics 628, at 628.
99. Pitkin, J. of Politics op. cit., n. 81, p. 142.
100. Birch, J. of Politics op. cit., n. 80, p. 59.
101. Squires and Wickham-Jones, J. of Politics op. cit., n. 4, pp. 91-2.
102. id., pp. 97-9.
103. Compare Ross, J. of Politics op. cit., n. 62, p. 191;
104. E. Breitenbach, 'The Women's Movement in Scotland in the 1990s' in Women and Contemporary Scottish Politics: An Anthology, eds. E. Breitenbach and F. MacKay (2001) 83-4.
105. Compare R. Voet, Feminism and Citizenship (1998) 95.
106. Squires and Wickham-Jones, Feminism and Citizenship op. cit., n. 4, pp. 91-2;
107. R. Campbell, 'Gender, Ideology and Issue Preference: Is There Such as Thing as a Political Women's Interest in Britain?' (2004) 6 Brit. J. of Politics and International Relations 20.
108. See, for example, Squires and Wickham-Jones, id., pp. 92-7;
109. Childs, Brit. J. of Politics and International Relations op. cit., n. 83;
110. S. Childs and J. Withey, 'Women Representatives Acting for Women: Sex and the Signing of Early Day Motions in the 1997 British Parliament' (2004) 52 Political Studies 552;
111. P. Chaney and R. Fevre, 'Is there a Demand for Descriptive Representation? Evidence from the UK's Devolution Programme' (2002) 50 Political Studies 897.
112. Phillips, Political Studies op. cit., n. 57;
113. Phillips, Political Studies op. cit., n. 75.
114. Mansbridge, Political Studies op. cit., n. 85, p. 363.
115. See, for example, Ali and O'Cinneide, Political Studies op. cit., n. 19;
116. Cheney and Fevre, Political Studies op. cit., n. 93.
117. See Phillips, op. cit., n. 57, pp. 94-9;
118. Ali and O'Cinneide, id., pp. 61-73.
119. See, for example, H. Muir, 'Where Race Meets Gender' Guardian, 10 December 2004.
120. Compare Mansbridge, Guardian op. cit., n. 85, p. 654.
121. A. Whitehead, H.C. Debs., Standing Committee A (8 November 2001).
122. J. Ashley, 'Revealed: How Labour Sees Women' New Statesman, 4 February 2002.
123. Fawcett Society, 'Record Numbers of Women MPs', press release 6 May 2005.
124. See, for example, D.T. Studlar and I. McAllister, 'Does a Critical Mass Exist? A Comparative Analysis of Women's Legislative Representation Since 1950' (2002) 41 European J. of Political Research 233.
125. N. Shvedova, 'The Challenge of Transition - Women in Parliament in Russia' in Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers, ed. A. Karam (1998) 58.
126. Compare J. McKay, 'Women in German Politics: Still Jobs for the Boys?' (2004) 13 German Politics 56.
127. See, also, N. Busby, 'Sex Equality in Political Candidature: Supply and Demand Factors and the Role of the Law' (2003) 66 Modern Law Rev. 245, who argues that the uncertain application of the SDA to discrimination against women in the political context is a particular problem in this regard.
128. Fawcett Society, Modern Law Rev. op. cit., n. 102.
129. See, generally, Norris, Modern Law Rev. op. cit., n. 6, ch. 8.