Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 132, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 297-326

  Moors, Agnes ^a   De Houwer, Jan ^a  

^a GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Automatic; Autonomous; Unconscious; Uncontrolled; Unintentional

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; AUTOMATISM; BEHAVIOR; EGO DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY;

AUTOMATISM; HUMANS; INTENTION; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; UNCONSCIOUS (PSYCHOLOGY);

EID: 33645111993     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297     Document Type: Article

References (210)

1. Abrams, R. L., & Greenwald, A. G. (2000). Parts outweigh the whole (word) in unconscious analysis of meaning. Psychological Science, 11, 118-124.
2. Allport, A. (1989). Visual attention. In M. L Posner (Ed.), Foundation of cognitive science (pp. 631-682). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3. Allport, A. (1993). Attention and control: Have we been asking the wrong questions? A critical review of twenty-five years. In D. E. Meyer & S. Kornblum (Eds.), Attention and performance XIV: Synergies in experimental psychology, artificial intelligence, and cognitive neuroscience (pp. 183-218). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
4. Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89, 369-406.
5. Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
6. Anderson, J. R. (1992). Automaticity and the ACT* theory. American Journal of Psychology, 105, 165-180.
7. Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition. American Psychologist, 51, 355-365.
8. Atkinson, A. P., Thomas, M. S. C., & Cleeremans, A. (2000). Consciousness: Mapping the theoretical landscape. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 372-382.
9. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control of short-term memory. Scientific American, 224, 82-90.
10. Baars, B. J. (1988). A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
11. Baars, B. J. (1995). Evidence that phenomenal consciousness is the same as access consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 249.
12. Baars, B. J. (1997). Some essential differences between consciousness and attention, perception, and working memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 6, 363-371.
13. Baars, B. J. (1998). Metaphors of consciousness and attention in the brain. Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 58-62.
14. Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
15. Balota, D. A. (1983). Automatic semantic activation and episodic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 88-104.
16. Barbiero, D. (2004, May) Phenomenological critique of representationalism. In C. Eliasmith (Ed.), Dictionary of philosophy of mind. Retrieved August 5, 2004, from http://philosophy.uwaterloo.ca/MindDict/ phenomcritique.html
17. Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford Press.
18. Bargh, J. A. (1990a). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 93-130). New York: Guilford Press.
19. Bargh, J. A. (1990b). Goal ≠ intent: Goal-directed thought and behavior are often unintentional. Psychological Inquiry, 1, 248-251.
20. Bargh, J. A. (1992). The ecology of automaticity: Toward establishing the conditions needed to produce automatic processing effects. American Journal of Psychology, 105, 181-199.
21. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
22. Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automaticity in social psychology. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 169-183). New York: Guilford Press.
23. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-49). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. Bargh, J. A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 361-382). New York: Guilford Press.
25. Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 457-481). New York: Guilford Press.
26. Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Raymond, P., & Hymes, C. (1996). The automatic evaluation effect: Unconditional automatic activation with a pronunciation task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 104-128.
27. Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (2000). The mind in the middle: A practical guide to priming and automaticity research. In H. Reis & C. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social psychology (pp. 253-285). New York: Cambridge University Press.
28. Bargh, J. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1994). Environmental control of goal-directed action: Automatic and strategic contingencies between situations and behavior. In W. D. Spaulding (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium (Vol. 41, pp. 71-124). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
29. Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trötschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
30. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
31. Bernstein, A. (1969). To what does the orienting response respond? Psychophysiology, 6, 338-350.
32. Blair, I. V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242-261.
33. Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 227-287.
34. Brand, M. (1989). Proximate causation of action. Philosophical Perspectives, 3, 423-442.
35. Bratman, M. E. (1987). Intention, plans, and practical reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
36. Brentano, F. C. (1874). Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt [Psychology from an empirical standpoint]. Leipzig, Germany: Duncke & Humblot.
37. Broadbent, D. (1958). Perception and communication. London: Pergamon Press.
38. Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123-152.
39. Bryan, W. L., & Harter, L. (1899). Studies on the telegraphic language: The acquisition of a hierarchy of habits. Psychological Review, 6, 345-378.
40. Carlson, R. A., & Lundy, D. H. (1992). Consistency and restructuring in cognitive procedural sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 127-141.
41. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Control processes and self-organization as complementary principles underlying behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 304-315.
42. Chalmers, D. J. (1995). Facing up the problem of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 2, 200-219.
43. Chalmers, D. J. (1996). The conscious mind: In search of a fundamental theory. New York: Oxford University Press.
44. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 752-766.
45. Cheesman, J., & Merikle, P. M. (1984). Priming with and without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 36, 387-395.
46. Christiansen, M. H., & Chater, N. (1992). Connectionism, learning, and meaning. Connection Science, 4, 227-252.
47. Clark, A. (1993). Associative engines. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
48. Cleeremans, A. (1997). Principles for implicit learning. In D. Berry (Ed.), How implicit is implicit learning? (pp. 195-234). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
49. Cleeremans, A. (2005). Computational correlates of consciousness. Progress in Brain Research, 150, 81-98.
50. Cleeremans, A., & Jiménez, L. (2002). Implicit learning and consciousness: A graded, dynamic perspective. In R. M. French & A. Cleeremans (Eds.), Implicit learning and consciousness (pp. 1-40). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
51. Davidson, D. (1980). Essays on actions and events. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
52. Davis, L. H. (1994). Action. In S. Guttenplan (Ed.), A companion to the philosophy of mind (pp. 111-117). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
53. Dennett, D. C. (1984). Elbow room: The varieties of free will worth wanting. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
54. Dennett, D. C. (1991). Consciousness explained. Boston: Little, Brown.
55. Deutsch, J. A., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: Some theoretical considerations. Psychological Review, 70, 80-90.
56. Dienes, Z., & Perner, J. (1999). A theory of implicit knowledge. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 735-808.
57. Draine, S. C., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998). Replicable unconscious semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 286-303.
58. Dulany, D. E. (1997). Consciousness in the explicit (deliberative) and implicit (evocative). In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to the study of consciousness (pp. 179-212). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
59. Eilan, N. (1998). Perceptual intentionality. Attention and consciousness. In A. O'Hear (Ed.), Current issues in philosophy of mind (pp. 181-202). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
60. Erdelyi, M. H. (1992). Psychodynamics and the unconscious. American Psychologist, 47, 784-787.
61. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
62. Fiske, S. T. (1989). Examining the role of intent: Toward understanding its role in stereotyping and prejudice. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 253-283). New York: Guilford Press.
63. Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
64. Fowler, C. A., Wolford, G., Slade, R., & Tassinary, L. (1981). Lexical access with and without awareness: A methodological survey and evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 341-362.
65. Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681-700.
66. Francolini, C. M., & Egeth, H. (1980). On the automaticity of "automatic" activation: Evidence of selective seeing. Perception & Psychophysics, 27, 331-342.
67. Freud, S. (1984). The unconscious. In A. Richards (Ed.), The Pelican Freud library (Vol. 11, pp. 159-222). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. (Original work published 1915)
68. Gati, I. & Ben-Shakar, G. (1990). Novelty and significance in orientation and habituation: A feature-matching approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 251-263.
69. Gibson, E. J. (1969). Principles of perceptual learning and development. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
70. Gillett, E. (1996). Searle and the "deep unconscious". Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology, 3, 191-200.
71. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 53-92). New York: Guilford Press.
72. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 141-185.
73. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493-503.
74. Green, C. D., & Vervaeke, J. (1996). What kind of explanation, if any, is a connectionist net? In C. W. Tolman, F. Cherry, R. van Hezewijk, & I. Lukbek (Eds.), Problems of theoretical psychology (pp. 201-208). North York, Ontario, Canada: Captus.
75. Greenwald, A. G. (1992). New look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47, 766-779.
76. Greenwald, A. G., & Draine, S. C. (1998). Distinguishing unconscious from conscious cognition - Reasonable assumptions and replicable findings: Reply to Merikle and Reingold (1998) and Dosher (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 320-324.
77. Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., & Schuh, E. S. (1995). Activation by marginally perceptible ("subliminal") stimuli: Dissociation of unconscious from conscious cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 22-42.
78. Hardcastle, V. G. (1997). Attention versus consciousness: A distinction with a difference. Cognitive Studies: Bulletin of the Japanese Cognitive Science Society, 4, 56-66.
79. Harnad, S. (1990). The symbol grounding problem. Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena, 42, 335-346.
80. Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 356-388.
81. Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action (P. K. Leppman, Trans.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. (Original work published 1990)
82. Hendrickx, H., De Houwer, J., Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., & Van Avermaet, E. (1997). Hidden covariation detection might be very hidden indeed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 201-220.
83. Hermans, D., Crombez, G., & Eelen, P. (2000). Automatic attitude activation and efficiency: The fourth horseman of automaticity. Psychologica Belgica, 40, 3-22.
84. Hermans, D., De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (1994). The affective priming effect: Automatic activation of evaluative information in memory. Cognition and Emotion, 8, 515-533.
85. Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
86. Inhoff, A. W. (1982). Parafoveal word perception: A further case against semantic preprocessing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 8, 137-145.
87. Jacob, P. (2003, Fall) Intentionality. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved August 5, 2004, from http://plato. stanford.edu/entries/intentionality
88. Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic and intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513-541.
89. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
90. Jastrow, J. (1906). The subconscious. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
91. Jiménez, L., Méndez, C., & Cleeremans, A. (1996). Comparing direct and indirect measures of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 948-969.
92. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1988). A computational analysis of consciousness. In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 357-368). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
93. Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
94. Kahneman, D., & Chajczyk, D. (1983). Test of the automaticity of reading: Dilution of Stroop effects by color-irrelevant stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9, 497-509.
95. Kahneman, D., & Henik, A. (1981). Perceptual organization and attention. In M. Kubovy & J. Pomerantz (Eds.), Perceptual organization (pp. 181-212). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
96. Kahneman, D., & Treisman, A. (1984). Changing views of attention and automaticity. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 29-61). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
97. Kant, I. (1929). Critique of pure reason (N. K. Smith, Trans.). New York: Macmillan. (Original work published 1787)
98. Kelso, J. A. S. (1995). Dynamic patterns: The self-organization of brain and behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
99. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987, September 18). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 137, 1445-1452.
100. Klauer, K. C., Greenwald, A. G., & Draine, S. C. (1998). Correcting for measurement error in detecting unconscious cognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 318-319.
101. Kramer, A. F., Strayer, D. L., & Buckley, J. (1990). Development and transfer of automatic processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 505-522.
102. Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Goals as knowledge structures. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 599-618). New York: Guilford Press.
103. LaBerge, D. (1973). Attention and measurement of perceptual learning. Memory & Cognition, 1, 268-276.
104. LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.
105. Lewicki, P. (1986). Nonconscious social information processing. New York: Academic Press.
106. Lewicki, P. (1992). Nonconscious acquisition of information. American Psychologist, 47, 796-801.
107. Lewicki, P., Czyzewska, M., & Huffman, H. (1987). Unconscious acquisition of complex procedural knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 523-530.
108. Libet, B. (1985). Unconscious cerebral initiative and the role of conscious will in voluntary action. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 529-566.
109. Loftus, E., & Klinger, M. R. (1992). Is the unconscious smart or dumb? American Psychologist, 47, 761-765.
110. Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91, 295-327.
111. Logan, G. D. (1978). Attention in character classification tasks: Evidence for the automaticity of component stages. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 107, 32-63.
112. Logan, G. D. (1979). On the use of concurrent memory load to measure attention and automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 5, 189-207.
113. Logan, G. D. (1980). Attention and automaticity in Stroop and priming tasks: Theory and data. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 523-553.
114. Logan, G. D. (1985). Skill and automaticity: Relations, implications, and future directions. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 39, 367-386.
115. Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492-527.
116. Logan, G. D. (1989). Automaticity and cognitive control. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 52-74). New York: Guilford Press.
117. Logan, G. D. (1991). Automaticity and memory. In W. E. Hockley & S. Lewandowsky (Eds.), Relating theory and data: Essays on human memory in honor of Bennet B. Murdock (pp. 347-366). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
118. Logan, G. D. (1992). Attention and preattention in theories of automaticity. American Journal of Psychology, 105, 317-339.
119. Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books.
120. Mackie, J. L. (1965). Causes and conditionals. American Philosophical Quarterly 2, 245-264.
121. Mackie, J. L. (1974). The cement of the universe: A study of causation. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
122. MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163-203.
123. Malle, B. F., & Knobe, J. (1997). The folk concept of intentionality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 101-121.
124. Marcel, A. J. (1980). Conscious and preconscious recognition of polysemous words: Locating the selective effect of prior verbal context. In R. S. Nickerson (Ed.), Attention and Performance VIII (pp. 435-457). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
125. Marcel, A. J. (1983a). Conscious and unconscious perception: An approach to the relation between phenomenal experience and perceptual processes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 238-300.
126. Marcel, A. J. (1983b). Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 197-237.
127. Marcel, A. J. (1988). Phenomenal experience and functionalism. In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 121-158). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
128. Marr, D. (Ed.). (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. New York: Freeman.
129. McGill, A. L., & Tenbrunsel, A. E. (2000). Mutability and propensity in causal selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 677-689.
130. Mele, A. R., & Moser, P. K. (1994). Intentional action. Noûs, 28, 39-68.
131. Menzies, P. (2004). The causal efficacy of mental states. In J. M. Mon-noyer (Ed.), The structure of the world: The renewal of metaphysics in the Australian School. Paris: Vrin Publishers.
132. Merikle, P. M., & Daneman, M. (1998). Psychological investigations of unconscious perception. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5, 5-18.
133. Merikle, P. M., & Reingold, E. M. (1998). On demonstrating unconscious perception: Comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 304-310.
134. Mill, J. S. (1843). A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive. London: Parker.
135. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt.
136. Moors, A., De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (2004). Automatic stimulus-goal comparisons: Support from motivational affective priming studies. Cognition and Emotion, 18, 29-54.
137. Moskowitz, G. B. (2001). Preconscious control and compensatory cognition. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.). Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition (pp. 333-358). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
138. Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P. M., Wasel, W., & Schaal, B. (1999). Preconscious control of stereotype activation through chronic egalitarian goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 167-184.
139. Moskowitz, G. B., Li, P., & Kirk, E. R. (2004). The implicit volition model: On the preconscious regulation of temporarily adopted goals. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 317-414). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
140. Moya, C. J. (1990). The philosophy of action: An introduction. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
141. Naccache, L., Blandin, E., & Dehaene, S. (2002). Unconscious masked priming depends on temporal attention. Psychological Science, 13, 416-424.
142. Nagel, T. (1994). What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical Review, 83, 434-450.
143. Natsoulas, T. (1981). Basic problems of consciousness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 132-178.
144. Navon, D. (1995). A-consciousness: The local newspaper of the mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 265.
145. Navon, D., & Gopher, D. (1979). On the economy of the human processing system. Psychological Review, 86, 214-255.
146. Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality. San Francisco: Freeman.
147. Nelkin, N. (1993). The connection between intentionality and consciousness. In M. Davies & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Consciousness: Psychological and philosophical essays (pp. 224-239). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
148. Neumann, O. (1984). Automatic processing: A review of recent findings and a plea for an old theory. In W. Prinz & F. Sanders (Eds.), Cognition and motor processes (pp. 255-293). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
149. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
150. Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation (Vol. 4, pp. 1-18). New York: Plenum Press.
151. Oatley, K. (1993). Freud's cognitive psychology of intention: The case of Dora. In M. Davies & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Consciousness: Psychological and philosophical essays (pp. 90-104). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
152. O'Shaughnessy, B. (1991). Searle's theory of action. In E. Lepore & R. Van Gulick (Eds.), John Searle and his critics (pp. 271-280). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
153. Palmeri, T. J. (1997). Exemplar similarity and the development of automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23, 324-354.
154. Perruchet, P., & Vinter, A. (2002). The self-organizing consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 297-330.
155. Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25.
156. Posner, M. I. (1982). Cumulative development of attentional theory. American Psychologist, 37, 168-179.
157. Posner, M. I. (1994). Attention: The mechanism of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 91, 7398-7403.
158. Posner, M. I., & Klein, R. (1973). On the functions of consciousness. In S. Kornblum (Ed.), Attention and performance IV (pp. 21-35). New York: Academic Press.
159. Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1989). Intentional chapters on unintended thoughts. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 450-469). New York: Guilford Press.
160. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975a). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 153-175). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
161. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975b). Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In P. M. A. Rabbit & S. Dornic (Eds.), Attention and performance V (pp. 669-682). New York: Academic Press.
162. Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R. R., & Davidson, B. J. (1980). Attention and the detection of signals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 109, 160-174.
163. Power, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1991). From Freud to cognitive science: A contemporary account of the unconscious. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 289-310.
164. Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The control of perception. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
165. Prinz, W. (1990). A common coding approach to perception and action. In O. Neumann & W. Prinz (Eds.), Relationships between perception and action (pp. 167-201). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
166. Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
167. Regan, J. E. (1981). Automaticity and learning: Effects of familiarity on naming letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7, 180-195.
168. Reingold, E. M. (1992). Conscious versus unconscious processes: Are they qualitatively different? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 218-219.
169. Reingold, E. M., & Merikle, P. M. (1988). Using direct and indirect measures to study perception without awareness. Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 563-575.
170. Reingold, E. M., & Merikle, P. M. (1993). Theory and measurement in the study of unconscious processes. In M. Davies & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Consciousness: Psychological and philosophical essays (pp. 40-57). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
171. Rosenbaum, D. A., & Saltzman, E. (1984). A motor-program editor. In W. Prinz & F. Sanders (Eds.), Cognition and motor processes (pp. 51-61). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
172. Rosenbloom, P. S., & Newell, A. (1986). The chunking of goal hierarchies: A generalized model of practice. In R. S. Michaliski, J. G. Carbonell, & T. M. Mitchell (Eds.), Machine learning: An artificial intelligence approach (Vol. 2, pp. 247-288). Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
173. Schacter, D. L. (1989). On the relation between memory and consciousness: Dissociable interactions and conscious experience. In H. L. Roediger & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 355-389). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
174. Scherer, K. R. (1993). Neuroscience projections to current debates in emotion psychology. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 1-41.
175. Schneider, W., Dumais, S. T., & Shiffrin, R. (1984). Automatic and control processing and attention. In R. S. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 1-27). New York: Academic Press.
176. Schneider, W., & Fisk, A. D. (1984). Automatic category search and its transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 1-15.
177. Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality: An essay in the philosophy of mind. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
178. Searle, J. R. (1992). The rediscovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
179. Shallice, T. (1978). The dominant action system: An information- processing approach to consciousness. In K. S. Pope & J. L. Singer (Eds.), The stream of consciousness (pp. 117-157). New York: Plenum Press.
180. Shallice, T. (1988). Information-processing models of consciousness: Possibilities and problems. In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 305-333). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
181. Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367-447.
182. Shiffrin, R. M. (1988). Attention. In R. C. Atkinson, R. J. Hernstein, G. Lindzey, & R. D. Luce (Eds.), Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 739-811). New York: Wiley.
183. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
184. Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3-22.
185. Smith, E. R., & Lerner, M. (1986). Development of automatism of social judgements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 246-259.
186. Sokolov, E. N. (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex. New York: Macmillan.
187. Solomons, L., & Stein, G. (1896). Normal motor automatism. Psychological Review, 3, 492-512.
188. Sosa, E. (1993). Introduction. In E. Sosa & M. Tooley (Eds.), Causation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
189. Tolman, E. C. (1922). Concerning the sensation quality: A behavioristic account. Psychological Review, 29, 140-145.
190. Tooley, M. (1990). Causation: Reductionism versus realism. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 50, 215-236.
191. Treisman, A., Vieira, A., & Hayes, A. (1992). Automaticity and preattentive processing. American Journal of Psychology, 105, 341-362.
192. Tzelgov, J. (1997). Automatic but conscious: That is how we act most of the time. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 217-230). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
193. Tzelgov, J., Henik, A., Sneg, R., & Baruch, B. (1996). Unintentional word reading via the phonological route: The Stroop effect with cross-script homophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 336-349.
194. Tzelgov, J., Yehene, V., Kotler, L., & Alon, A. (2000). Automatic comparisons of artificial digits never compared: Learning linear ordering relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 103-120.
195. Tzelgov, J., Yehene, V., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (1997). From automaticity to memory and vice versa: On the relations between automaticity and memory. In J. Brzezinski, B. Krause, & T. Maryszewki (Eds.), Idealization in psychology: Poznan studies of sciences and the humanities (Vol. 55, pp. 239-261). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
196. Uleman, J. S. (1989). A framework for thinking intentionally about unintended thoughts. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 425-449). New York: Guilford Press.
197. Uleman, J. S. (1999). Spontaneous versus intentional inferences in impression formation. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 141-160). New York: Guilford Press.
198. Umiltà, C. (1988). The control operations of consciousness. In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 334-356). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
199. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987). What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 3-15.
200. Wakefield, J., & Dreyfus, H. (1991). Intentionality and the phenomenology of action. In E. Lepore & R. Van Gulick (Eds.), John Searle and his critics (pp. 259-270). Cambridge, MA, Blackwell.
201. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34-52.
202. Wegner, D. M. (2002). The illusion of conscious will. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
203. Wegner, D. M. (2003). The mind's best trick: How we experience conscious will. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 65-69.
204. Wegner, D. M., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 446-496). New York: McGraw-Hill.
205. Wegner, D. M., & Wheatley, T. (1999). Apparent mental causation: Sources of the experience of will. American Psychologist, 54, 480-492.
206. Wickens, C. D. (1984). Processing resources in attention. In R. Parasuraman & R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 63-102). New York: Academic Press.
207. Wundt, W. (1897). Outlines of psychology (C. H. Judd, Trans.). Leipzig, Germany: Wilhelm Engelmann. (Original work published 1896)
208. Wundt, W. M. (1902). Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie [Principles of physiological psychology] (Vol. 1). Leipzig, Germany: Wilhelm Engelmann.
209. Wundt, W. M. (1903). Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie [Principles of physiological psychology] (Vol. 3). Leipzig, Germany: Wilhelm Engelmann.
210. Zbrodoff, N. J., & Logan, G. D. (1986). On the autonomy of mental processes: A case study of arithmetic. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 118-130.