The 'new woman' and the politics of love, marriage and divorce in colonial Korea

Gender and History

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 295-324

  Yoo, Theodore Jun ^a  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIVORCE; MARRIAGE; WOMENS STATUS;

AFRICA; EAST AFRICA; KENYA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 33645102102     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.0953-5233.2006.00383.x     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, tr. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), p. 416-7.
2. Tonga ilbo, 24 June 1922.
3. Tonga ilbo, 8 October 1926.
4. Na Kyǒng-hǔi, 'Ilcheha han'guk sinmun ae nat'anan yǒsǒng undong kwan' [Examining the Women's Movement through Korean Newspapers under Japanese Colonial Rule], unpublished MA dissertation (Koryo University, 1987), p. 17.
5. Lefebvre, The Production of Space, p. 51.
6. Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 5.
7. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 8.
8. Carter Eckert, Offspring of Empire: The Koch'ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876-1945 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), p. 67.
9. Tōkanfu, Tōkanfu tōkei nempō [Annual Report of the Residency General of Korea] Keijō, 1910)
10. Chōsen Sōtokufu, Chōsen sōtokufu tōkei nempō [Statistical Yearbook of the Government-General of Korea] Keijō, 1919-1940). It was only after 1922 that women workers as a category were separately tabulated in Government-General records.
11. Chōsen Sōtokufu, Chōsen sōtokufu tōkei nempō [Statistical Yearbook of the Government-General of Korea] Keijō, 1922, 1936).
12. While these numbers might appear relatively modest, only eleven cities in 1910 had a population of approximately 14,000. In the case of Kyoňgsǒng (Seoul), where 24 per cent of the factories were located, there was a major demographic shift as the population increased from 187,176 in 1914 to 935,464 in 1940. Keijō Shōkō Kaigishō, Keijō ni okeru kōjō chōsa [Survey of Factories in Seoul] (Keijō, 1937), pp. 115-16
13. Chōsen Sōtokufu, Chōsen sōtokufu tōkei nempō [Statistical Yearbook of the Government-General of Korea] (Keijō, 1940).
14. 'Yakjin ha nǔn chǒ chejo kongǒp sahoe pangmunki' [The Rapid Progress of All Industries: A Social Report], Sin Tonga 6 (1935), p. 114.
15. See Kathleen Canning, Languages of Labor and Gender: Female Factory Work in Germany, 1850-1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
16. Tonga ilbo, 10 November 1933.
17. Chōsen Sōtokufu, Chōsen sōtokufu tōkei nempō [Statistical Yearbook of the Government-General of Korea] (Keijo, 1929).
18. A higher percentage of males migrated to distant places like Manchuria or Japan while female migrants to cities outnumbered males by the 1920s. See Kwǒn T'ae-hwan, 'Ilche sidae toshihwa' [Urbanisation under Japanese Colonial Rule], in Han'guk ǔi sahoe wa munhak, vol. 11 (Seoul: Han'guk chǒngshin munhwa yǒn'guwǒn, 1990), p. 270.
19. Bae Sǒng-yǒng, 'Chibang ǔi nongch'on p'ungsǔp' [The Customs of Farming Villages in the Countryside], Nongmin 6 (1932), pp. 55-7.
20. Most of the women ch'ulga headed to the cities like Keijō (Seoul) to work in textile factories while their male counterparts sought work in mines and engaged in hard labour. Chōsen Shokusan Ginkō, Shokugin chōsa geppō, vol. 45 (Keijō, 1942), p. 20.
21. Yi Hye-suk, 'Yǒjik kong pangmunki' [My Visit to a Women's Factory: A Journal], Kǔnu 5 (1929), unpaginated.
22. For more on the history of Korean women's education, see Lulu Frey, 'Higher Education for Korean Girls', The Korea Mission Field, 10 (1914), p. 307
23. James Earnest Fisher, 'Democracy and Mission Education in Korea', unpublished PhD thesis (Columbia University, Teachers College, 1928)
24. The Eighty Year History of Ewha (Seoul: Ewha Woman's University Press, 1966)
25. Yung-Chung Kim (ed.), Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945 (Seoul: Ewha Woman's University Press, 1976).
26. See Lee Hyo-chae, 'Protestant Missionary Work and Enlightenment of Korean Women', Korea Journal 17 (1977), pp. 33-50.
27. Andrew Nahm, Korea: A History of the Korean People (New Jersey: Hollym International Corp, 1988), p. 250.
28. Tonga ilbo, 1 January 1928.
29. Tonga ilbo, 6 April 1920.
30. Tonga ilbo, 6 April 1920.
31. Pak Sa-jik, 'Puin kyoyuk munjero tongǔi haya' [We must find a Consensus on the Woman's Education Problem], Kaebyǒk 3 (1921), p. 35.
32. Kim Myǒng-sǒk, 'Chorǒp hu iljunyǒn' [One Year after Graduation], Sin yǒsǒng 10 (1924), unpaginated.
33. Han So-je, 'Kǔriun kǔ yet'nal' [Yearning for the Past], Sin kajǒng 6 (1936), p. 164.
34. Na Hye-sǒk, 'Isangjǒk puin' [The Ideal Lady], Hak chi kwang 3 (1914), pp. 13-4.
35. 'Ch'ǒlhak paksa Kim Hwallan yang' [PhD Kim Hwallan], Sin Tonga 2 (1932), p. 67.
36. Chu Yo-sǒp, 'Chosǒn yǒja kyoyuk kaesin an' [A Plan to Reform Korean Women's Education], Sin yǒsǒng 10 (1933), unpaginated.
37. Yi Kwang-su, 'Naega yǒhakkyo tangkukja imyǒn: Mosǒng chungsim ǔi yǒja kyoyuk' [If I were the Principal of a Girls' School: Female Education Centred around Mothercraft], Sin yǒsǒng 1 (1925), unpaginated.
38. Min Tae-wǒn, 'Naega yǒhakkyo tangkukja imyǒn' [If I were the Principal of a Girls' School], Sin yǒsǒng 1 (1925), unpaginated.
39. 'Yǒsǒng p'yǒngron' [A Critique of Women], Sin yǒsǒng 3 (1926), unpaginated.
40. In 1920, a student from 'an unnamed girls' school' committed suicide fearing that she would be accused of stealing a gold ring. That same year, a student at Ewha Special Girls' School committed suicide for stealing twenty won. Another student at Kyǒngsǒng Girls' School committed suicide after slandering her teacher. Shin Young-sook, 'Ilcheha han'guk yǒsǒng sahoesa yǒn'gu' [A Social History of Korean Women under Japanese Colonial Rule], Ph.D. dissertation (Ewha Woman's University, 1989), p. 39.
41. Tonga ilbo, 3 April 1920.
42. 'C' Journalist, 'Hakkyo pangmunki' [A Visit to a School], Hakdǔng 11 (1935), unpaginated.
43. Hǒ Chǒng-suk, 'P'yǒngron' [A Critique], Sin yǒsǒng 11 (1925), unpaginated.
44. By the 1920s, the number of Korean female students going to Japan rose significantly. The majority enrolled in higher normal schools or special medical schools for women. Pak Chǒng-ae, '1910-1920 nyǒndae ch'oban yǒja ilbon yuhaksaeng yǒn'gu' [A Study of Students Studying Abroad in Japan during the First Half of the 1920s], unpublished MA dissertation (Sukmyǒng Women's University, 1999), p. 24.
45. Hwang Sin-dǒk, Yi Sǒnhae and Im Ae-yǒng all studied literature at Waseda University. Ko Myǒng-ja was the first Korean woman to study at Moscow State University. Hwallan (Helen) Kim was the first Korean woman to be awarded a doctorate at Columbia University. Kim Cha-hye, 'P'yǒngyang ae nahun sin yǒsǒng,' [Women from P'yǒngyang], Sin kajǒng 3 (1933), p. 120.
46. Tonga ilbo, 1 March 1924.
47. 'Yǒhaksaeng ǔi sekaji p'aep'ung' [The Three Bad Habits of Female Students], Sin yǒsǒng 4 (1926), unpaginated.
48. Tonga ilbo, 24 June 1922
49. Sang Sǒp, 'Yǒja danpal munje wa kǔ ae kwanggye haya' [Female Bobbed Hair and the Problems Related to it], Sin saenghwal 7 (1922), pp. 49-50.
50. Karen A. Callaghan, Ideals of Feminine Beauty: Philosophical, Social, and Cultural Dimensions (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994), pp. 7-17.
51. 'X yǒhakkyo KY saeng: Danpal han kamsang' [Student KY at X Girls' School: Impressions of Bobbed Hair], Tongkwang 9 (1932), p. 61.
52. 'Danpal munje ǔi sibi' [The Rights and Wrongs behind the Bobbed Hair Problem], Sin yǒsǒng 8 (1925), unpaginated.
53. Kim Hwallan, 'Yǒja danpal ae: Ka hanka bu hanka?' [A Woman's Bobbed Hair: Should We Approve or Disapprove?], Pyǒlkǒnkon 1 (1929), unpaginated.
54. Kang 'X' Hwan, 'Che 2 ho ingan dǔl' [Second Class Human Beings], Pyǒlkǒnkon 8 (1927), p. 69.
55. Chosǒn ilbo, 21 July 1929.
56. 'Kyǒngsǒng myǒngmulnyǒ danpalnang mihaengki' [The Shadow of Famous Women with Bobbed Hair in Seoul], Pyǒlkǒnkon 12 (1926), p. 70.
57. Chosǒn ilbo, 26 June 1927.
58. 'Sǒul hakkyo kongbu' [Studying at a School in Seoul], Sin yǒsǒng 6 (1926), unpaginated.
59. G. P. Stone, 'Appearance of Self', in Arnold M. Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Process: An Interactionist Approach (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), pp. 86-116.
60. Yi In-sǒn, 'Yǒhaksaeng chalmot, namhaksaeng chalmot: Nae nun ǔro pon yǒhaksaeng ǔi haengdong' [Mistakes by Female Students, Mistakes by Male Students: The Conduct of Female Students Seen Through My Eyes], Sin yǒsǒng 7/8 (1924), unpaginated
61. Yi WS., 'Yǒhaksaeng chǔk sach'i dǒngǒri' [Female Students, a Chunk of Extravagance], Sin yǒsǒng 7/8 (1924), unpaginated.
62. Tonga ilbo, 11 June 1924.
63. Pyǒlkǒnkon 12 (1927), unpaginated.
64. Chosǒn ilbo, 29 September 1928.
65. The first advertisement of the 'two-piece outfit' was published in the Taehan maeil sinbo on 7 April 1909
66. The Tonga ilbo published an advertisement for 'Oxford Shoes' on 22 June 1920.
67. Tonga ilbo, 14 October 1921.
68. Tonga ilbo, 10 April 1924.
69. Tonga ilbo, 28 September-2 October 1921.
70. Chosǒn ilbo, 29 September 1928.
71. Bonnie Haaland, Emma Goldman. Sexuality and the Impurity of the State (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997), p. 18.
72. Laura Raspilica Rodd, 'Yosanao Akiko and the Taisho Debate over the "New Woman" ', in Gail Lee Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women 1600-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 175-98, here p. 175.
73. Tonga ilbo, 8 October 1926.
74. Tonga ilbo, 11 July 1921.
75. Tonga ilbo, 26 March 1924.
76. This cartoon was a scathing critique of Na Hye-sǒk, Korea's first female to be recognised as an artist in the modern period, who professed to have had an affair while studying in Paris. 'Nopumo ulyǒ yuhak hago toraon yuji sinsa wa sin sukyǒ' [Makes Aged Parents Cry, Goes Abroad and Returns: A Leading Gentleman and New Lady], Pyǒlkǒnkon 12 (1927), unpaginated.
77. Choe Jun, Han'guk sinmunsa [The History of the Korean Newspaper] (Seoul: Ilchogak, 1960), p. 301.
78. Ellen Key was introduced to Korea by No Chang-yǒng. See No Chang-yǒng, 'Yǒsǒng undong ǔi cheil inja Ellen Key' [The Most Renowned Personality in the Women's Movement, Ellen Key], Kaebyǒk 8 (1921), pp. 46-50. Articles on Ellen Key's ideas also appeared in newspapers and journals: Chosǒn ilbo, 12 December 1933, 28-29 April 1936, 1 May 1936
79. 'Pulkǔn yǒnae chuinkongdǔl' [The Protagonists of Radiant Love], Samch'ǒlli 7 (1931), p. 13
80. Hara Minoru's translation of Key's Love and Marriage into Japanese (Ren-ai to kekkon) was distributed by Iwanami Bunshō Press in 1930. Friedrich Engels's Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (Kazoku shiryū zaisan oyobi kokka no kigen, Kajok sayu chesan kukka ǔi kiwǒn) was published in segments in the Chosǒn kyohwa wǒlbo in 1934 (vols 79-84)
81. Otaka Hiryoshi's translation of works by Alexandra Kollontai also appeared in bookstores in 1936. Another very popular book among Koreans studying in Japan was The Modern View of Love (Kindai no renaikan, Kundae ǔi yǒnae kwan, by Kuriyagawa Hakuson of Waseda University.
82. Kim Ǔl-han, Sillok tongkyǒng yuhaksaeng [An Account of a Student Studying Abroad in Tokyo] (Seoul: T'ongkudang, 1986), p. 61.
83. The Kabo Reforms of 1894 sought to eliminate child marriage and allow widow remarriage. Lee Young-ick, 'The Kabo Reform Movement: Korean and Japanese Reform Efforts in Korea, 1894', unpublished PhD thesis (Harvard University, 1972). In 1922, the colonial state promulgated the Chōsen Civil Code Ordinance Number 13 which set the minimum age of marriage at seventeen for men and fifteen for women. This conformed with the old Japanese Civil Code Articles 765, 780, 781. Divorce was legalised on condition that couples agreed to it and reported it to the head of their county or the mayor of the city of their residence. However, couples could not divorce without parental consent. A divorce by trial could be filed on the grounds of bigamy, adultery, imprisonment, ill-treatment or if a spouse was missing for three years.
84. See Kim (ed.), Women of Korea, pp. 267-70.
85. Sin yǒsǒng 9 (1933), unpaginated.
86. Hong Ran, 'P'yǒngron: Ihon sosong kyǒkchǔng' [An Editorial Comment on Divorce Litigations], Sin yǒsǒng 2 (1925), unpaginated
87. 'Sukyǒnsumun, kǔmnyǒn ǔi ihon sǒngjǒk ǔn ǒtt'ǒn ka?' [What are the Divorce Rates this Year?], Kaebyǒk 12 (1925), unpaginated.
88. Pak X Hǔi, 'Na ǔi kyǒlhon ch'amhoe' [My Marriage Confession], Pyǒlkǒnkon 5 (1930), p. 15.
89. Kim Song-ǔn, 'Ihon munje ae daehayǒ' [Regarding the Problem of Divorce], Kaebyǒk 5 (1923), pp. 39-40.
90. Kim Ki-jin, 'Kyǒlhon kwa ihon ae daehayǒ' [Regarding Marriage and Divorce], Sin yǒsǒng 5 (1924), unpaginated.
91. Chǒn Uň-Jóng 'Sin yǒsǒng, sikminji, kǔndae, kabu changje ǔi kyoch'aro: Kǔndae kyǒmhǒm kwa yǒsǒng chuch'e hyǒngsǒng kwajǒng' [At the Crossroads of the New Woman, Colonialism, Modernity and Patriarchy: The Modern Experience and the Process of Women's Subjectivity Formation], Yǒšǒng kwa sahoe 11 (2000), pp. 29-45, here p. 37.
92. Friedrich Engels, The Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State (New York: Pathfinder, 1972), p. 117.
93. Min Byǒng-hǔi, 'Kyekǔp undong kwa aeyok munje' [Class Struggle and the Love Question], Pip'an 2 (1932), unpaginated
94. Yamakawa Kikue (1890-1980), a member of Seitō (Blue Stockings) had a major impact on many Korean female intellectuals. She argued in 'Women as Bargain Goods with Giveaway Premiums' that in capitalist society 'married women' were constructed by the capitalist marriage relationship. She noted that 'within it, wives, as economic dependents of husbands' were merely 'prostitutes just like women who sold sexual services for cash to a variety of male customers'.
95. Cited in E. Patricia Tsurumi, 'Visions of Women and the New Society in Conflict: Yamakawa Kikue versus Takamure Itsue', in Sharon Minichiello (ed.), Japan's Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy 1900-1930 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), pp. 335-57, here p. 339.
96. 'Nampy'ǒn jeǒk makmyǒng chung ch'ǒ ǔi sujǒl munje' [The Problem of a Spouse Maintaining her Integrity while her Husband is in Prison or has Fled the Country], Samch'ǒlli 11 (1930), unpaginated.
97. Hwang Sin-dǒk, 'Pubu ae, chǒngsa, sǒng kyoyuk' [Love among Couples, Double suicides, Sex Education], Samch'ǒlli 5 (1930), unpaginated.
98. Kim P'yǒn-ju, 'Ch'ǒngsang ǔi saenghwal' [The Life of a Young Widow], Sin yǒja 6 (1920), p. 13.
99. Im In-sik, 'Yǒngwǒn ǔi han p'um ǔn "S" nǔn wae chasal haet'na' [S's Harbouring Eternal Resentment. Why did She Commit Suicide?], Pip'an 9 (1931), pp. 85-8.
100. Ellen Key, Love and Marriage, tr. Arthur G. Chater (New York: G.P. Putman's Sons, 1912), pp. 13-16.
101. Pang In-kǔn, 'Kyǒlhon ǔn yǒnae ǔi chǒngch'a chang' [Marriage is an Impediment to Love], Samch'ǒlli 11 (1932), p. 94.
102. Yun Sǒng-sang, 'Kyǒlhon ǔn yǒnae ǔi kyǒlsil ikirǔl mit'nǔnda' [Belief that Marriage is the Result of Love], Yǒsǒng 5 (1938), pp. 31-5.
103. 'Namnyǒ kyoje ae daehayǒ' [Regarding the Association between Male and Female], Yǒja kye 6 (1921), pp. 17-20.
104. Tonga ilbo, 13 August 1920.
105. Yi Chǒng-hwan, 'Yi Ki-yǒng, Kim Hyǒn-su sakǒn kwa hyǒndae yǒnae sacho ǔi pip'an' [Criticism of the Yi Ki-yǒng, Kim Hyǒn-su Incident and the Trend of "Yǒnae" (free love)], Sin yǒsǒng 6 (1933), unpaginated.
106. Pak Ch'an-hǔi, 'Sin yǒja ae ke han kaji put'ak' [Requesting one Favour from the New Women], Pyǒlkǒnkon 12 (1927), pp. 86-7.
107. Young-sook, 'A Social History of Korean Women', pp. 62-3.
108. Tsurumi, 'Visions of Women and the New Society in Conflict', p. 339.
109. Kim Iryǒp, 'Uri ǔi isang' [Our Ideal], Punyǒ chi kwang 8 (1924), p. 10.
110. Miriam Silverberg, 'The Modern Girl as Militant' in Bernstein (ed.), Recreating Japanese Women, pp. 239-66, here p. 246.
111. Tonga ilbo, 19-20 June 1926.
112. Kim Yung-Hee, 'From Subservience to Autonomy: Kim Wǒnju's "Awakening", tr. Yunghee Kim, Korean Studies 21 (1997), pp. 1-30, here pp. 28-9.
113. Reformers noticed that the traditional Korean family lacked discipline, fixed time and principles; its members were lethargic and lacking vitality. See Tonga ilbo, 25 May 1924.
114. Tonga ilbo, 7 January 1928.
115. Tonga ilbo, 19 November 1929.
116. Tonga ilbo, 5 February 1928; 7 February 1928.
117. Tonga ilbo, 25 May 1923.
118. Kim Hye-kyǒng, 'Kasa nodong namron kwa han'guk kǔndae kajok: 1920, 30 nyǒndae rǔl chungsim ǔro' [The Domestic Labour Discourses under Japanese Colonial Rule and their Implications for the Transformation of the Family in Korea], Han'guk yǒsǒnghak 15 (1999), pp. 153-84, here p. 164.
119. Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 10.
120. Ch'ae Maria, 'Kasa chǒnmun iyagi' [A Discussion on the Professionalisation of the Household], Ewha 4 (1929), unpaginated.
121. Lila Abu-Lughod, 'Introduction: Feminist Longings and Postcolonial Conditions', in Lila Abu-Lughod (ed.), Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in Middle East (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 3-31, here pp. 8-9.
122. Tonga ilbo, 16 March 1925.
123. Tonga ilbo, 12 March 1938.
124. Tonga ilbo, 1 November 1938;
125. Kim Hye-kyǒng, 'Discourses on Domestic Labour', p. 165.
126. 'Ajinomoto' [MSG], Chokwang 6 (1937), unpaginated.
127. Kim Hye-kyǒng, 'Discourses on Domestic Labour under Japanese Colonial Rule and its Implications for Transformation of the Family in Korea', pp. 165-6.
128. The first sewing textbook was published in 1925 and used at the Kyǒngsǒng Public Girls' Common School. Chosǒn ilbo, 27 March 1925.
129. Pak Ji-hang, 'Trailblazers in a Traditional World: Korea's First Women College Graduates, 1910-1945', Social Science History 14 (1990), pp. 533-58, here p. 537.
130. 'Yǒja chikǒp anhae' [Working Woman and Wife], Pyǒlkǒnkon 3 (1927), p. 101.
131. Ujiie Hisako, Saishin katei kanri to kaji kezai [Recent Family Management and Household Economies] (Tokyo: Genbunsha, 1938), pp. 385-8.
132. Article 11 of Civil Ordinance 7 introduced aspects of Japanese civil law in areas such as legal age for marriage, judicial divorce and inheritance. The principle of registration was introduced in the event of birth, death, marriage and adoption with the Ordinance of the Family Registration, 18 December 1922. For an excellent discussion of family law during the colonial period, see Hyunnah Yang, 'Envisioning Feminist Jurisprudence in Korean Family Law at the Crossroads of Tradition/ Modernity', unpublished PhD thesis (New School for Social Research, 1998), pp. 37-66.
133. Chōsen Sōtokufu, 'Jinkō zōshoku oyobi seisan fusoku' [The Increase of Population and Insufficiency in Production], Hantō jiron 7 (1917), unpaginated.
134. Hyǒn Sang-yun, 'Ingu chǔngsik p'ilyoron' [The Need for Increasing the Population], Hak chikwang 7 (1917), unpaginated.
135. Kim Kwang-sǒk, 'Munje ǔi munje: Ahe rǔl manhi nat'chi malja' [A Question within a Question: Not Giving Birth to Many Children], Pyǒlkǒnkon 11 (1930), unpaginated.
136. Cho Hyǒn-kyǒng, 'Sana chehan ǔl heya hana? Modudǔl heya handapnida' [Should We Allow Birth Control? Everybody Says We Should], Yǒsǒng 4 (1936), unpaginated.
137. John Knodel, The Decline of Fertility in Germany, 1871-1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974)
138. James Woycke, Birth Control in Germany, 1871-1933 (London: Routledge, 1988).
139. In the first issue of The Woman Rebel, Margaret Sanger coined the term 'birth control'. Margaret Sanger, Pioneering Advocate for Birth Control: An Autobiography (New York: Cooper Square Press, 1999), p. 182.
140. Nihon sanji chōsetsu hyakunenshi [A Hundred Years of Birth Control in Japan] (Tokyo: Shuppan kagaku sōgōkenkūkai, 1976), p. 348. In her observation of Koreans, Sanger notes: 'Koreans also resented speeding up of production in the silk factories through the exploitation of little girls. I saw them, shoulders bent, crouched up over their work, hair braided down their backs; they were almost like babies'.
141. Margaret Sanger, Pioneering Advocate for Birth Control, p. 338.
142. Both editorials urged the state to legalise birth control. Tonga ilbo, 13 November 1921
143. Tonga ilbo 24 October 1924. Phrases like jinshū no kairyō (improving the race) and shakai kairyō (improving of society) also began to appear in Japanese newspapers and journals.
144. Sabine Frühstück, 'Transforming Sex into a Discourse: Managing the Truth of Sex in Imperial Japan', Journal of Asian Studies 59 (2000), pp. 332-58, here p. 336.
145. The Chosǒn ǔisa hyǒphoe (Korean Doctor's Association) was established in 1930, the Pokwon undongsa (Health Movement Society) in 1932 and the Chosǒn usaeng hyǒphoe (Korean Eugenics Association) in 1933. For more see Tonga ilbo, 8 June 1932
146. Kim Hwallan (Helen) was a member of the Korean Eugenics Association.
147. Lamarckian eugenics emphasised that changes caused by environmental factors would be passed down to future generations biologically. If men and women had the same education, for example, 'their natures would converge more rapidly'. Ellen Key, The Century of the Children, tr. Marie Franzos (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909)
148. Allen Buchanan, Dan W. Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wilker, From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 30-31.
149. Chosǒn ilbo, 29 May 1930.
150. Tonga ilbo, 25-27 January 1929
151. Chosǒn ilbo 20-24 May 1930.
152. Yi Kap-su, 'Usaenghakjǒk sana chehan non' [Discourse on Eugenical Birth Control], Sin yǒsǒng 8 (1933), unpaginated.
153. Shin Il-yong, 'Puin munje ǔi il koch'al: Chayu sasang kwa hyǒnmo yangch'o' [An Inquiry into the Wife Question: The Idea of Freedom and the Ideology of the Wise Mother and Good Wife], Sin saenghwal 3 (1922), unpaginated.
154. Tonga ilbo, 3 March 1930.
155. Aigo and nikutai in Japanese.
156. Kudo Taekeshiro, 'Jidō aigo no konbon imi' [The Fundamental Meaning of Aigo of Children], Chōsen shakai jigyō 8 (1930), unpaginated.
157. Kim Myǒng-hǔi, 'Si py'ǒngnon' [Comments on Current Events], Sin yǒsǒng 1 (1925), unpaginated.
158. 'Yi Dong chwadam: Naega isang ha nǔn namp'yǒn' [A Discussion with Yi Dong: My Ideal Type of Husband], Sin yǒsǒng 12 (1932), unpaginated.
159. Yi Sang-hwan, 'Kinkǔp tongǔi hapnida: Nonch'on yǒsǒng munje ae daehayǒ' [An Urgent Consensus is Needed: Regarding the Problems of Women in the Rural Area], Sin yǒsǒng 1 (1925), unpaginated.
160. Chosǒn ilbo, 10 May 1929.
161. Pak Sun-ok, 'Sin yǒsǒng p'yǒngdan' [A Critique of the New Woman], Sin yǒsǒng 1 (1925), unpaginated.
162. Chosǒn ilbo, 28 May-14 June 1930.
163. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: An Introduction, tr. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), p. 136.
164. Pak Yong-hae, 'Sana chochǒl ǔi sahoejǒk koch'al' [A Social Inquiry into Adjusting the Birth Control Movement], Hak chi kwang 8 (1930), unpaginated.
165. Chosǒn ilbo, 28 May, 6 June 1930.
166. Maeil sinbo, 28 December 1929.
167. Tonga ilbo, 18-19 November 1929.
168. Yi Kwang-su, 'Mosǒng' [Motherhood], Yǒsǒng 5 (1936), unpaginated.
169. Nam Sang-hǔi, 'Sana chehan' [Birth Control], Kat'orik Chǒngnyǒn 2 (1934), unpaginated.
170. Chōsen Sōtokufu Gakumyukyoku Shakai Ka, 'Ninsampu hogo ni kansuru' [Protecting Expecting and Nursing Mothers: A Study], Chōsen shakai jigyō 11 (1933), p. 53.
171. Pak Ho-chin, 'Sana chehan ǔi chǒlkyu' [A Call for Birth Control], Samch'ǒlli 4 (1930), unpaginated.
172. 'Anae ae taehan hwimang, anhae ae taehan pulp'yǒn' [Regarding the Expectations and Inconveniences of a Wife], Sin yǒsǒng 4 (1931), unpaginated.
173. 'Myǒngryu puin kwa sana chehan' [Renowned Wives and Birth Control], Samchǒlli 9 (1930), unpaginated.