Peacekeeping and enforcement action in Africa: The role of Europe and the obligations of multilateralism

Review of International Studies

Volumn 31, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2005, Pages 207-223

  Gray, Christine ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33645089187     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210505006868     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Deputy Secretary-General Louise Fréchette, address to Foreign Affairs Committee of EU Parliament, March 2004;
2. UN News Service, 27 January 2004.
3. UN Press Release DEV/2485, 7 September 2004;
4. UN Press Release SG/SM/8311, 17 May 2004;
5. UN Press Release SC/8095, 17 May 2004.
6. 〈www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/〉.
7. SC 4918th meeting, UN Press Release SC/8012, 27 February 2004.
8. SC Res 1542 (2004).
9. SC Res 1545 (2004).
10. UN Press Release SC/8120, 11 June 2004.
11. UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 April 2004;
12. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 'Meeting new challenges' 〈www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/faq/q8.htm〉, visited on 18 August 2004;
13. UN Press Release DEV/2485, 7 September 2004.
14. UN Press Release GA/AB/3613, 3 May 2004;
15. UN Press Release GA/AB/3614, 4 May 2004.
16. UN Press Release SC/8096, 17 May 2004;
17. UN Press Release DEV/2485, 7 September 2004;
18. 〈www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/〉.
19. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 〈www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/dpko/faq/q8.htm〉, visited on 18 August 2004, 'Who contributes personnel?'. Earlier this figure of EU contribution was only 7 per cent, UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 March 2004;
20. UN Press Release GA/SPD/299, 27 October 2004.
21. The US contributes 1 per cent of troops, but pays the largest financial contribution; in 2004 it paid $790 m of the peacekeeping budget, UN Press Release GA/PK/180, 29 March 2004. The very restrictive US doctrine on participation in UN peacekeeping is set out in US Presidential Directive PDD 25 of 1994.
22. UN News Release, 27 January 2004;
23. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 〈www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/dpko/faq/q8.htm〉, visited on 18 August 2004, 'Who contributes personnel?'
24. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 〈www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/dpko/faq/q4.htm〉, visited on 18 August 2004, 'What are the current challenges to successful peacekeeping?'.
25. UN Press Release GA/SPD/297, 25 October 2004.
26. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 〈www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/dpko/faq/q4.htm〉 visited on 18 August 2004, 'What are the current challenges to successful peacekeeping?'.
27. UN Press Release GA/PK/180, 29 March 2004, Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, statement by Morocco on behalf of the NAM; see also UN Press Release GA/SPD/298, 26 October 2004, Fourth Committee, statement by Morocco on behalf of the NAM.
28. UN Document GA/SPD/299, 27 October 2004.
29. A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility (New York: UN, 2004), para. 216.
30. UN Press Release GA/AB/3614, 4 May 2004.
31. UN Press Release OBV/422, 24 May 2004.
32. See also, UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 March 2004, 'Deputy Secretary-General calls for increased support by EU for millennium goals, UN peacekeeping';
33. UN website, Department of Peacekeeping home page, 〈www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/dpko/faq/q6.htm〉, visited on 18 August 2004; UN Press Release SG/SM/9311, 17 May 2004.
34. UN Document S/2000/809; 2000 United Nations Yearbook (UNYB), p. 83.
35. Established by the General Assembly in 1965 to conduct a comprehensive review of all issues relating to peacekeeping. UN Press Release GA/PK/180, 29 March 2004; UN Press Release GA/PK/181, 30 March 2004.
36. UN Press Release SC/8095, 17 May 2004.
37. SC 4970th meeting, UN Press Release SC/8095, 17 May 2004.
38. Christine Gray, International Law and the Use of Force, 2nd edn. (2004), at p. 239.
39. UN Press Release SC/8203, 8 December 2004; SC Res 1565(2004).
40. UN Press Release SC/8204, 1 October 2004.
41. UN News Centre, 9 January 2004.
42. UN Document S/2004/3, 6 January 2004, Report of the Secretary-General on the UN Mission in Côte d'Ivoire. The ECOWAS contingents from Benin, Ghana, Niger, Senegal and Togo already present in the country were rehatted under UNOCI.
43. See, for example, UN Panel Discussion on Rwanda Genocide, UN Press Release AFR/888, 7 April 2004; OAU Panel, Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide.
44. Gray, International Law and the Use of Force, p. 47.
45. 22 April 1999, 〈www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page1297〉.
46. 71 British Yearbook of International Law (BYIL) (2000), p. 646.
47. 5 March 2004, 〈www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page5461〉.
48. UN, A More Secure World, para. 199.
49. The UN and Rwanda 1993-1996, the UN Blue Book Series Vol. X (1996);
50. OAU Panel, Rwanda: The Preventable Genocide.
51. UN Press Release AFR/888, 7 April 2004, UN Panel Discussion on Rwanda Genocide.
52. UN Press Release SG/SM/9245, 7 April 2004, 〈www.unog.ch/news2/ documents/newsen/sg04003e.htm〉.
53. UN Document S/2000/809; 2000 UNYB, p. 83.
54. Gray, International Law and the Use of Force, p. 258.
55. Gray, International Law and the Use of Force Ibid., p. 259.
56. UN Press Release AFR/888, 7 April 2004.
57. UN Press Release AFR/1005, 2 August 2004.
58. Keesing's Record of World Events (2004), 45884.
59. The Guardian. 10 August 2004.
60. Assembly of the AU, 3rd Ordinary session, 6-8 July 2004, 〈www.africa-union.org/DARFUR/homedar.htm〉.
61. UN Press Release SC/8160, 30 July 2004.
62. Keesing's Record of World Events (2004), 46105, 46188;
63. The Independent, 10 September 2004.
64. UN Press Release SG/SM/9484, 16 September 2004.
65. SC 5040th meeting, UN Press Release SC/8191, 18 September 2004.
66. UN Press Release SC/8120, 11 June 2004.
67. The Guardian, 10 August 2004, 23 August 2004.
68. UN Press Release SC/8120, 11 June 2004.
69. The Guardian, 9 July 2004.
70. UN Press Release SC/8206, 5 October 2004; The Guardian, 26 August 2004.
71. The AU considered transformation of the Observer Mission into a full-fledged peacekeeping mission with the requisite mandate and size to ensure the effective implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement (AU Document, PSC/PR/Comm (XIII) para 9, 27 July 2004; UN Document S/2004/603, 27 July 2004).
72. The request of the government of Sudan to the AU to increase its monitoring presence in Darfur was welcomed in SC Res 1564 (2004).
73. UN Press Release SC/8160, 30 July 2004, SC Res 1556.
74. UN Press Release SC/8104, 25 May 2004;
75. UN Press Release SC/8120, 11 June 2004.
76. AU Communique, PSC/PR/Comm.(XIII), UN Press Release SC/8195, 24 September 2004. Nigeria's President, the Chairman of the AU, stressed that the Darfur situation presented the Union with a huge undertaking of command and control, in a magnitude it had never undertaken before.
77. SC 5094th meeting, UN Press Release SC/8262, 7 December 2004.
78. UN Press Release SC/8247, 21 December 2004.
79. UN Press Release SC/8148, 14 July 2004.
80. UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 March 2004 (with the limited exceptions of Ireland which has provided troops in Liberia, and Sweden for the DRC).
81. UN Press Release SC/7862, 3 September 2003.
82. SC Res 1527 SC Res 1528
83. Keesing's Record of World Events (2003), 45312, 45759.
84. UN Press Release SC/8144, 9 July 2004; Keesing's Record of World Events (2004), 46134.
85. 'EU-led forces could intervene in Sudan conflict', The Financial Times, 12 April 2004.
86. UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 March 2004; EU Presidency Statement - Special Committee on Peacekeeping, 17 March 2004.
87. UN Press Releases SG/SM/9188, 8 March 2004;
88. SC/8153, 20 July 2004;
89. UN Press Release GA/PK/181, 30 March 2004.
90. International Herald Tribune, 21 May 2003.
91. Gray, International Law and the Use of Force, p. 245, n. 175.
92. Keesing's Record of World Events (2002), 44968, 45131, 45126;
93. Keesing's Record of World Events (2003), 45231;
94. Keesing's Record of World Events (2004), 45775.
95. The Guardian, 8 July 2004;
96. Keesing's Record of World Events (2003), 45175, 45731.
97. UN Press Release SC/8239, 6 November 2004.
98. EU Presidency Statement - Special Committee on Peacekeeping, 29 March 2004 (Ref: PRES04-035EN);
99. see also UN Press Release GA/SPD/298, 26 October 2004, Netherlands on behalf of the EU.
100. EU Presidency Declaration on Africa and the African Union, 6 July 2004 (Ref: CL04-135EN);
101. UN Press Release GA/PK/182, 19 April 2004;
102. UN Press Release SG/2092, 5 October 2004.
103. UN Press Release SG/SM/8679, 30 April 2003;
104. UN Press Release SC/7745, 30 April 2003.
105. Secretary-General's Report, S/2004/3, 6 January 2004, paras 48, 50, 61. The UK committed £4 m to the West African peacekeeping effort in Côte d'Ivoire, FCO Press Release, 21 April 2004.
106. UN Press Release SC/8001, 17 February 2004.
107. SC Res 1545 (2004).
108. Communique of 13th meeting of AU Peace and Security Council, 27 July 2004, PSC/PR/Comm (XIII);
109. UN Press Release SC/8153, 20 July 2004;
110. The Guardian, 5 June 2004.
111. Concern has been expressed at a move within the OECD to redefine spending on peacekeeping missions or training foreign armies as development aid (The Guardian, 15 December 2004).
112. UN Press Release GA/SPD/298, 26 October 2004.
113. Ibid.
114. Ibid.
115. See, for example, the arguments by South Africa, Côte d'Ivoire and Burundi, UN Press Release GA/SPD/181, 30 March 2004, and UN Press Release SC/8095, 17 May 2004.
116. UN Press Release SC/8153, 20 July 2004.
117. Ibid.
118. UN Press Release DSG/SM/216, 30 March 2004.
119. UN Press Release DSG/SM/214, 20 February 2004; UN News Service, 27 January 2004, 'Rising Demand for Peacekeeping Stretches UN's Resources, Fréchette Says'.
120. FCO News, PM launches Commission for Africa, 26 February 2004; FCO Minister's Address to the Centre for International Studies and Research, 24 February 2004.
121. Somalia has now been accused of tolerating the operations of those responsible for the November 2003 bomb attack on the hotel in Mombasa, Kenya. Keesing's Record of World Events (2003), 45682.
122. BBC News, How Important is African Oil?, 7 September 2003, 〈news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/business/3054948.stm〉.
123. UN Press Releases GA/PK/180, GA/PK/181, 29 and 30 March 2004.
124. Report of High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility (2004), at para. 244.
125. Franck, Recourse to Force (2002), at p. 155.
126. De Wet, The Changing Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council (2004) ch. 7. On policy grounds it seems undesirable to pursue the imposition of democracy by force. It has to be doubted whether democracy can be successfully established by force in the light of the experience of Kosovo, Haiti, Iraq and Afghanistan.
127. Akehurst, 'Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States', 42 BYIL (1967), p. 175.
128. UN Press Release SC/8153, 20 July 2004;
129. UN Press Release GA/PK/181, 30 March 2004;
130. UN Press Release SC/7724, 11 April 2003.