The legal response of the League of Nations to terrorism

Journal of International Criminal Justice

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 78-102

  Saul, Ben ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33645000572     PISSN: 14781387     EISSN: 14781395     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jicj/mqi096     Document Type: Article

References (304)

1. H. Donnedieu de Vabres, 'La repression internationale du terrorisme: Les conventions de Genève (16 novembre 1937)' 62 Revue de Droit International et Législation Comparée (1938) at 45
2. G. Marston, 'Early Attempts to Suppress Terrorism: The Terrorism and International Criminal Court Conventions of 1937', 73 British Yearbook of International Law (BYBIL) (2002) at 293
3. P. Kovacs, 'La Société des Nations et son action après l'attentat contre Alexandre, roi de Yougoslavie', 6 Journal of the History of International Law (2004) at 65
4. J. Starke, 'The Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism', 19 BYBIL (1938) at 214.
5. F. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: OUP, 1969), at 599.
6. In re Pavelic and Kwaternik (23 November 1934), Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases (1934), Case No. 158, at 372.
7. Walters, supra note 2, at 604.
8. B. Zlataric, 'History of International Terrorism and its Legal Control', in M.C. Bassiouni (ed), International Terrorism and Political Crimes (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1975), at 481.
9. Walters, supra note 2, at 244-255.
10. Ibid., at 246 and 600.
11. League of Nations (LoN), Committee of Experts for the Codification of International Criminal Law, Replies of Governments, LoN Doc. C.196.M.70.1927.V. at 221.
12. Terrorism was discussed at the Third (Brussels, 1930), Fourth (Paris, 1931), Fifth (Madrid, 1933) and Sixth (Copenhagen, 1935) International Conferences for the Unification of the Criminal Law: G. Bouthoul, 'Definitions of Terrorism, in D. Carlton and C. Schaerf (eds), International Terrorism and World Security (London: Croom Helm, 1975), at 72.
13. See Troisième Conférence internationale pour l'unification du droit pénal, Bruxelles, 26-30 juin 1930
14. Quatrième Conférence internationale pour l'unification du droit penal, Paris, 27-30 décembre 1931 (Paris: Librairie du Recueil Sirey, 1933) (especially Rapporteur R. Lemkin, 'Emploi intentionnel de moyens capables de faire courir un danger commun: Terrorisme', Troisième Commission);
15. Cinquième Conférence internationale pour l'unification du droit pénal, Madrid, 14-20 octobre 1933 (Paris: A Pedone, 1935)
16. Sixième Conférence internationale pour l'unification du droit pénal, Copenhague, 31 août-3 septembre 1935 (Paris: A Pedone, 1938).
17. In LoN, Committee for the International Repression of Terrorism (CIRT), Geneva, 10 April 1935, LoN Doc. CRT 1.
18. First Session April-May 1935; Second Session January 1936; Third Sessions April 1937. The States were Belgium, UK, Chile, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Roumania, USSR, Spain, Switzerland.
19. LoN Assembly, Resolution of 10 October 1936, reproduced in LoN, International Conference Proceedings on the Repression of Terrorism, Geneva, 1-16 November 1937, LoN Doc. C.94.M.47.1938.V (LoN Archives Geneva: Council Members Docs vol. 1103), Annex I, at 183.
20. By virtue of the place of preparation or execution, or the nationality of perpetrators or victims: International Conference Proceedings, ibid.
21. In its Resolution of 10 December 1934, the League Council referred to CIRT a French Proposal for a treaty of 9 December 1934, which formed the basis of initial discussion: LoN (CIRT), Report to the Council on the First Session of the Committee (30 April-8 May 1935), Geneva, 8 May 1935, LoN Doc. C.184.M102.1935.V Appendix III, at 22 (First Session Report). This draft was followed by a CIRT chairperson draft: LoN (CIRT), 'Preliminary draft text drawn up by Professor Pella', Geneva, 1 May 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.5 (Pella Draft), and further drafts from CIRT's First and Second Sessions: LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, infra, Appendix 1, at 4 (First Session Draft). LoN (CIRT), Report to the Council Adopted by the Committee on 15 January 1936, Geneva, 10 February 1936, LoN Doc. A.7.1936.V [C36(1).1936.V] (Second Session Report), Appendix I, at 3 (Second Session Draft).
22. LoN, International Repression of Terrorism: Observations by Governments Series I, 7 September 1936, LoN Doc. A.24.1936.V;
23. LoN, International Repression of Terrorism: Observations by Governments Series II, 21 September 1936, LoN Doc. A.24(a).1936.V;
24. LoN International Repression of Terrorism, Observations by Governments, Geneva, 30 March 1937, LoN Doc. C.194.M.139.1937.V.
25. LoN Assembly, First Committee (Constitutional and Legal Questions), Records of the 17th Ordinary Session of the Assembly: Meetings of Committees, LoN Official Journal, Special Supp. No. 156, Geneva 1936 (First Committee Record). The First Committee submitted recommendations to the Third Session of CIRT: LoN (CIRT), Report Adopted by the Committee on 26 April 1937, Geneva, 26 April 1937, LoN Doc. V. Legal 1937.V.1 (Third Session Report), Appendix I, at 3 (Third Session Draft).
26. LoN (CIRT), 'Preliminary Draft Convention drawn up by the Executive Bureau of the International Criminal Police Commission', Geneva, 11 April 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.3 (Vienna Draft)
27. LoN CIRT, 'Texts adopted by the 6th International Conference for the Unification of Criminal Law (Copenhagen 31 August to 3 September 1935)', Geneva, 7 January 1936, LoN Doc. CRT.17 (Copenhagen Draft)
28. LoN CIRT, 'Legislation Regarding Political Terrorist Crimes: Study by M. Thomas Givenovitch', Geneva, 3 May 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.9 (Givenovitch Draft).
29. LoN Final Act of Conf, Geneva, 16 Nov 1937, LoN Doc. C.548.M385.1937.V;
30. (1938) 19 LoN OJ 23; in Y. Alexander, M. Browne and A. Nanes (eds), Control of Terrorism: International Documents (New York: Crane Russak, 1979), at 19.
31. Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism 1937 (League Convention 1937), in International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 5
32. and LoN Final Act of the Conference, Geneva, 16 November 1937, LoN Doc. C.548.M385.1937.V;
33. reproduced in Alexander et al. (eds), ibid.;
34. and Convention for the Creation of an International Criminal Court 1937, in International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 19.
35. The latter treaty attracted fewer signatories and never came into force. A state was entitled, instead of prosecuting or extraditing, to send the suspect for trial before the international court.
36. European States: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Spain, Yugoslavia. American States: Argentina, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Peru, Venezuela. Other regions: USSR, Turkey, (British) India and Egypt, along with a small state, Estonia. Monaco subsequently signed: Starke, supra note 1, at 214.
37. Starke, ibid., at 215.
38. Ibid., at 60.
39. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 14.
40. Ibid.
41. See, e.g. Copenhagen Draft, supra note 17, preamble;
42. cf. Vienna Draft, supra note 17, at 9 (treating terrorism as ordinary crime).
43. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 44.
44. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 56.
45. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31.
46. Observations by Governments Series II, supra note 15, at 1.
47. Bouthoul, supra note 9, at 72.
48. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 60.
49. Ibid., at 50 (Count Carton de Wiart).
50. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 15
51. see also International Conference Proceedings, ibid., at 66.
52. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, ibid., Appendix III, at 15.
53. Ibid.
54. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31.
55. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 21.
56. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 62.
57. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 39.
58. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 2.
59. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 66.
60. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 15.
61. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31.
62. Ibid., at 35.
63. 1970 Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the UN, annexed to UN General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV) (1970), Principle of Prohibition on Threat or Use of Force, §9, and Principle of Non-Intervention, §2
64. UN General Assembly resolutions 3034 (XXVII) (1972)
65. 32/147 (1977), preamble;
66. 34/145 (1979), preamble, §7
67. 38/130 (1983, §4
68. 40/61 (1985), §6
69. 42/159 (1987). § 4 and 5(a)
70. 44/29 (1989), § 3 and 4(a)
71. 46/51 (1991), § 3 and 4(a)
72. 49/60 (1994), § 4 and 5(a)
73. 51/210 (1996), §5
74. 52/165 (1997), §5
75. 53/108 (1999), §5
76. 54/110 (2000), §5
77. 55/158 (2001), §5
78. 56/88 (2002), §5
79. 57/27 (2003), §5
80. 58/81 (2004), §5
81. 59/46 (2004), §5
82. see also UN General Assembly (60th Sess), 2005 World Summit Outcome, UN doc. A/60/L.1, 20 September 2005, §86.
83. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 74.
84. Ibid., at 53 (UK);
85. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 57 (Switzerland, Norway, Portugal);
86. LoN (CIRT), Second Session Report, supra note 14, at 3.
87. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 72-73.
88. LoN (CIRT), Third Session Report, supra note 16, at 2.
89. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 73 (Roumania);
90. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 36 (Yugoslavia).
91. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record ibid., at 42 (France); 48 (Finland);
92. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 5 (Finland).
93. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 62 (Belgium)
94. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 15 (Roumania)
95. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31 and 44-45 (Roumania); 37 (Yugoslavia)
96. Observations by Governments Series II, supra note 15, at 2-3 (Poland).
97. From 1856, the 'Belgian clause' excluded from the political offence exception 'an outrage against the head of a foreign Government constituting either murder, premeditated murder or poisoning: Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 3 (Belgium), citing the law of 22 March 1856.
98. Articles 7-9, First Session Draft, supra note 14
99. see also Observations by Governments Series II, supra note 15, at 2-3 (Poland).
100. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 40 (UK)
101. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 53 (UK); 54 (Norway); 62 (Belgium); 67
102. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 3 (Belgium).
103. LoN (CIRT), 'Meaning of "Political Crime": Note by the British Expert', Geneva, 1 May 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.8 and cases cited therein.
104. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 67 (Rapporteur Pella).
105. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 37 (Rapporteur Pella).
106. Article 8(1) of the League Convention 1937 required that the terrorist offences in Arts 2 and 3 shall be deemed extradition crimes in any prior or subsequent extradition treaty made between States Parties. Article 8(2) required states which permit extradition in the absence of an extradition treaty to recognize the offences in Arts 2 and 3 as extraditable offences, subject to reciprocity. Article 8(3) deemed as extradition crimes offences under Arts 2 and 3 directed against a State Party in its own territory.
107. Article 8(4) of the League Convention 1937.
108. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 43 (Belgium).
109. Ibid., at 46 (Roumania).
110. Ibid., at 47 (Switzerland, Netherlands).
111. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 2 (Austria), 2 July 1936
112. Observations by Governments Series 1, supra note 15, at 9 (Norway).
113. Article 9(1) of the League Convention 1937.
114. Article 9(2) of the League Convention 1937.
115. Article 10 of the League Convention 1937.
116. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 46.
117. Article 11(1) of the League Convention 1937, extended the application of Arts 9 and 10 to offences in Arts 2 and 3 which have been committed in the territory of a State Party against whom they were directed.
118. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 57 (Poland).
119. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 41 (France).
120. Articles IF (exclusionary grounds), 32 (grounds of expulsion) and 33 (exception to nonrefoulement) of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951, 189 UNTS 137, adopted 28 July 1951 in Geneva, entered into force 22 April 1954
121. as extended by the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 606 UNTS 267, adopted 31 January 1967 in New York, entered into force 4 October 1967 (Refugee Convention 1951).
122. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31 (Portugal).
123. It is noteworthy that Portugal was then ruled by the fascist Salazar regime.
124. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 37 (Yugoslavia); 45 (Roumania)
125. see also LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 15.
126. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III. at 11 (Austria); 20 (Roumania).
127. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 48 (Finland); 37 (Norway); 39 (Netherlands); 41 (Sweden)
128. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 11 (Netherlands)
129. see also LoN Doc. A.24.1936.V (Ser LoN.P.1936.V.6), at 11 (Netherlands).
130. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 41 (France); 32 (Belgium).
131. Ibid., at 33 and 43 (Belgium).
132. Ibid.
133. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 20 (Roumania)
134. Art. 9, Pella Draft, supra note 14.
135. E.g. Letter from the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (Geneva) to the CIRT, 30 April 1935, LoN Archives Geneva Doc. 3A/17788/ 15085/I;
136. letter from the Howard League for Penal Reform (London) to the LoN Secretary General, 27 March 1935, LoN Archives Geneva Doc. 3A/15105/ 15085/VI (arguing that of the one-and-a-quarter million refugees from the Russian and former Turkish empires assisted by the League, there was only one terrorist case).
137. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 12.
138. Ibid.;
139. see also LoN, International Repression of Terrorism, Note by the Secretary-General, Observation by China, 27 November 1936, LoN Doc. C552.M.356.1936.V;
140. LoN (CIRT), Second Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 13 (Egypt).
141. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 13.
142. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 12.
143. Ibid., at 8.
144. Ibid., at 12 (Venezuela, Siam); 9 (Norway); 8 (India)
145. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 64 (Argentina); 53 (UK)
146. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 4 (UK).
147. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 9 (India).
148. Ibid., at 4 (UK, India); 9 (Norway).
149. Article 19 of the League Convention 1937: '...provided that the offender is not allowed to escape punishment owing to an omission in the criminal law.'
150. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 47.
151. Ibid., at 49.
152. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 64.
153. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, of 47
154. Ibid., at 59 (Roumania)
155. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 54 (Yugoslavia) 65 (Rapporteur Pella); 80 (Spain)
156. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 1-2 (Czechoslovakia).
157. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 4.
158. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 32.
159. Ibid., at 39.
160. Ibid., at 40.
161. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 2.
162. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 16 (Roumania).
163. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 54.
164. Givenovitch Draft, supra note 17, at 4-5
165. and influenced by the 1933 Madrid Conference, supra note 9.
166. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 80.
167. Article 1 of the Pella Draft, supra note 14
168. see also Chairperson's text at the CIRT First Session: LoN CIRT, Geneva, 3 May 1935, LoN Doc. CRT.10.
169. French Proposal, supra note 14
170. Art. 1, First Session Draft, supra note 14.
171. Givenovitch Draft, supra note 17, at 4-5.
172. E. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes (London: Abacus, 1994), at 68.
173. Letter and Denkschrift from the Vorstand der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Prague) to the CIRT (Geneva), 30 October 1937, LoN Archives Doc. 3A/15105/15085/XIII.
174. As proposed in Art. 2 of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14
175. and by the UK: CIRT, 'Suggestion by the British Expert for an Article to be Inserted in the Draft Convention', Geneva, 1 May 1935, LoN Archives Doc. 3A/17592/15085/VII.
176. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 72 (Yugoslavia) 78 (Roumania)
177. cf. 72 and 78-79 (France); 79 (Switzerland, Spain); 80 (Poland).
178. Ibid., at 79.
179. Ibid., at 81 (Yugoslavia).
180. Ibid., at 80 (Spain).
181. Ibid., at 78.
182. Ibid.
183. Ibid., at 72.
184. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 3.
185. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 45.
186. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 77.
187. Ibid., at 75.
188. Ibid.
189. Ibid., at 75.
190. Ibid.
191. Ibid., at 75-76.
192. Ibid., at 75.
193. Ibid., at 63 (Spain); 72 (Yugoslavia).
194. Ibid., at 72.
195. Ibid., at 71 (Belgium); 75 (Haiti); 77 (Yugoslavia).
196. Article 2(1) of the League Convention 1937.
197. Article 2(1) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14.
198. Ibid.
199. Article 2(1)(g) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14.
200. Article 2(2) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14
201. see similarly Art. 2(3) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14
202. Art. 2(3) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14.
203. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 14.
204. LoN (CIRT), Third Session Report, supra note 16, at 2.
205. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 30 (Roumania); 36 (Yugoslavia); 38 (Sweden).
206. Letters from H. McKinnnon-Wood (UK Foreign Office, Geneva) to L. Brass (UK Home Office, London) and to J. Fischer-Williams (Oxford), 30 March 1937, LoN Archives Geneva Doc. 3A/20521/15085/XIX.
207. Letter from L. Brass (UK Home Office, London) to H. McKinnon-Wood (UK Foreign Office), 3 April 1937, LoN Archives Geneva Doc. 3A/20521/15085/ XXI.
208. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 48.
209. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15.
210. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 1.
211. Ibid., at 2.
212. Observations by Governments Series II, supra note 15, at 2.
213. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 14.
214. Article 2(2) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14
215. see also French Proposal, supra note 14
216. Art. 2(2)-(3) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14
217. Art. 2(2) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14.
218. LoN (CIRT), First Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 13-14.
219. Article 2(6) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14
220. Art. 2(7) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14
221. Art. 2(4) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14.
222. Article (d) of the French Proposal, supra note 14.
223. Article 2(4) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14.
224. Article 2(4) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14.
225. Article 3(1)(2) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14.
226. Article 2(6) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14.
227. Article 2(8) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14.
228. Article 3(1)(2) of the Second Session Draft, supra note 14
229. Art. 3(d) and (e) of the Third Session Draft, supra note 16.
230. Article 3(2) and (3), respectively, of the League Convention 1937.
231. LoN (CIRT), Second Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 14.
232. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 1 (Czechoslovakia)
233. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 38 (Czechoslovakia)
234. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 53 (UK).
235. Article 2(5) of the Pella Draft, supra note 14
236. see also Art. (e) of the French Proposal, supra note 14.
237. LoN (CIRT), LoN Doc. CRT 11, at 2.
238. Article 2(6) of the First Session Draft, supra note 14.
239. Article 3(1)(c) of the Third Session Draft, supra note 16.
240. LoN (CIRT), Second Session Report, supra note 14, Appendix III, at 13.
241. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 147 (Switzerland)
242. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 60 (USSR); 38-39 (Sweden)
243. Observations by Governments Series I, at 10 (Netherlands).
244. See, e.g. LoN (CIRT), Second Session Report, supra note 14, at 3 (USSR); Appendix III, at 14 (Netherlands)
245. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 31 (Portugal); 36 (Yugoslavia); 38-39 (Sweden)
246. Observations by Governments 1937, supra note 15, at 2 (Czechoslovakia)
247. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 82 (Hungary); 147 (Yugoslavia); 148 (USSR Roumania).
248. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 71 and 81-83.
249. Article 3 of the Pella Draft, supra note 14.
250. Ibid., at 81 (Conference President); 81-82 (Hungary); 82 (Yugoslavia, Netherlands); 83.
251. Givenovitch Draft, supra note 17, at 6-7.
252. Ibid., at 6.
253. Ibid.
254. Ibid., at 7.
255. Article 19 of the 1996 ILC Draft Articles provided for state criminality, but was deleted from the 2001 ILC Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts: J. Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on States Responsibility (Cambridge: CUP, 2002), at 16-20 and 35-38.
256. UN Draft Comprehensive Anti-Terrorism Convention (informal coordinator text), annex I to UN General Assembly (Sixth Committee), Report of the Working Group on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, 16 October 2002, UN doc. A/C.6/57/L.9
257. see also UN General Assembly Official Records (59th Session), Ad Hoc Committee Report (2004), Supp. 37 (A/59/37).
258. R. Higgins, 'The General International Law of Terrorism', in R. Higgins and M. Flory (eds), Terrorism and International Law (London: Routledge, 1997), at 14.
259. The treaties are available at www.un.org/terrorism (visited 22 November 2005).
260. See Art. 1(1) of the EU Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002/475/JHA), 13 June 2002, Official Journal L164/3 (22 June 2002)
261. Art. 1(e) of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (signed in Kathmandu 1987, entered into force 22 August 1998)
262. Art. 1(2) of the Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (adopted April 1998, entered into force 7 May 1999)
263. Art. 1(2) of the Convention of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism 1999 (adopted at Ouagadougou on 1 July 1999, entered into force 7 November 2002)
264. Art 1(3) of the Organization of African Unity Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism 1999 (adopted at Algiers on 14 July 1999, entered into force 6 December 2002)
265. Art. 1(1) of the Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism (adopted in Shanghai on 15 June 2001, entered into force 29 March 2003).
266. Article 2(1)(b) of the UN Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism 1999 (UNTS, adopted December 1999, entered into force 10 April 2002)
267. Art. 1(1) of the EU Framework Decision, ibid.;
268. Art. 2(1) of the UN Draft Comprehensive Convention, supra note 174.
269. Ibid.;
270. see also Art. 1(1) of the International Convention against the Taking of Hostages 1979 (1316 UNTS 205, adopted 17 December 1979, entered into force 3 June 1983)
271. Art. 3(1)(b), (c) and (e) of the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation 1988 (1678 UNTS 221, adopted 10 March 1988, entered into force 1 March 1992).
272. ICTR Judgment, Ruggiu (ICTR-97-32), Trial Chamber, 1 June 2000.
273. EU Framework Decision, supra note 177, Art. 4
274. Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, ETS No 196 (not yet in force), Art. 5(2) (criminalizing 'public provocation of terrorism)
275. UNSC Res. 624 (2005), §1.
276. See E. Saul, 'Speaking of Terror: Criminalising Incitement to Violence', 28 (2005) University of NSW Law Journal, at 868.
277. Article 33(1) of the Geneva Convention IV 1949
278. Art. 51(2) of the Protocol I 1977
279. Arts 13(2) and 4(2)(d) of the Protocol II 1977
280. Art. 4(d) of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 1994
281. Art. 3(d) of the Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone;
282. see also Art. 22 of the Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare 1923, 17 American Journal of International Law (1923) Supplement, 245-260.
283. UN General Assembly, Ad Hoc Committee on Assembly Resolution 51/210, Sixth Sess., 26th Meeting, 'Finalizing Treaty Requires Agreement on "Armed Forces", "Foreign Occupation", Anti-Terrorism Committee Told', Press Release L/2993, 1 February 2002.
284. The 1997 and 2005 Conventions exclude the 'activities of armed forces during an armed conflict' from that Convention, as well as the activities of state military forces exercising their official duties 'inasmuch as they are governed by other rules of international law. This approach is also followed in recital 11 of the 2002 EU Framework Decision, supra note 177.
285. Article 8 of the League Convention 1937.
286. B. Ferencz, An International Criminal Court - A Step Toward World Peace: A Documentary History and Analysis, Vol. I (London: Oceana Publications, 1980), at 53.
287. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, supra note 16, at 40 (UK)
288. International Conference Proceedings, supra note 12, at 53 (UK); 54 (Norway); 62 (Belgium)
289. Observations by Governments Series I, supra note 15, at 3 (Belgium).
290. LoN Assembly, First Committee Record, ibid., at 48 (Finland); 37 (Norway); 39 (Netherlands); 41 (Sweden, France); 33 and 43 (Belgium)
291. Observations by Governments Series I, ibid., at 11 (Netherlands).
292. 2002 EU Framework Decision on the European Arrest Warrant and the Surrender Procedures between Member States (2002/584/JHA), 13 June 2002, OJ I, 190/1, 18 June 2002.
293. UNHCR, Preliminary Observations: European Commission Proposal for a Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism, Geneva, October 2001, §2.
294. See B. Saul, 'Definition of "Terrorism" in the UN Security Council: 1985-2004', 4 Chinese Journal of International Law (2005), at 141.
295. Walters, supra note 2, at 605.
296. Starke, supra note 1, at 215.
297. Quoted in I. Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by States (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), at 340.
298. International Law Commission, Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind (Part I) 1954, in ILC Sixth Session Report (3 June-28 July 1954), UN doc. A/2693. The Soviet Union also brought the League's definition to the attention of the International Conference on Military Trials in London during the drafting of the Nuremberg Charter in July 1945
299. and the League's definition was also raised at the London International Assembly on war crimes in 1942-1943: UN War Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London: HMSO, 1948), at 102.
300. UNGA Res. 49/60 (1994), annexed Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, §3.
301. T v Home Secretary [1996] AC 742, at 772-773 (Lord Mustill).
302. 1998 Draft Rome Statute, Art. 5, in Official Records of the UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on an ICC, Rome, 15 June-17 July 1998, UN doc. A/CONF.183/13, Vol. III, at 21 (referring to certain acts 'of such a nature as to create terror, fear or insecurity in the minds of public figures, groups of persons, the general public or populations').
303. UNSC Res. 1566 (2004), §3 (referring to certain acts designed to 'provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons').
304. A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford: OUP, 2003), at 124.