Regional photochemical air quality modeling: Model formulations, history, and state of the science

Annual Review of Energy and the Environment

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 537-588

  Russell, Armistead ^a  

^a Georgia Institute of Technology   (United States)

Author keywords

Atmospheric transport; Emissions controls; Ozone

Indexed keywords

AIR QUALITY; ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; COMPUTATIONAL METHODS; INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; OZONE; PROBLEM SOLVING;

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT; EMISSIONS CONTROLS;

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL;

EID: 3342911940     PISSN: 10563466     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.22.1.537     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Atkins DHFS, Cox RA, Eggleton AEJ. 1972. Nature 235:372-76
2. National Research Council. 1991. Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
3. Hov O, Hesstvedt E, Isaksen ISA. 1978. Long-range transport of tropospheric ozone. Nature 273:341-44
4. Isaksen ISA, Hov O, Hesstveddt E. 1978. Ozone generation over rural areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 12:1279-84
5. Cleveland J, Kleiner B, McRae JE, Warner JL. 1976. Photochemical air pollution: transport from the New York City area into Connecticut and Massachusetts. Science 191:179-81
6. Jacob DJ, Logan JA, Yevich RM, Gardner GM, Spivakovsky CM, et al. 1993. Simulation of summertime ozone over North America. J. Geophys. Res. 98:14797-816
7. x emissions. J. Geophys. Res. 100:22929-41
8. Carmichael GR, Kitda T, Peters LK. 1986. A second generation model for regional-scale transport/chemistry/deposition. Atmos. Environ. 20:173-88
9. 2 photooxidations suitable for inclusion in atmospheric simulation models. Atmos. Environ. 16:1341-55
10. Chang JS, Brost RA, Isaksen ISA, Madronich S, Middleton PB, et al. 1987. A three-dimensional Eulerian acid deposition model: physical concepts and formulation. J. Geophys. Res. 92:14681-700
11. Stockwell WR, Middleton P, Chang JS, Tang X. 1990. The second generation regional acid deposition model chemical mechanism for regional air quality modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 95:16343-67
12. Lamb R. 1986. Numerical solution of photochemical air pollution in the northeastem United States: ROM1 applications. Rep. EPA-600/3-86-038, US EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC
13. Schere KL, Wayland RA. 1988. EPA Regional Oxidand Model (ROM 2.0): Evaluation on 1980 NEROS data bases. EPA Rep. EPA-600/3-89-057, US EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC
14. Gery MW, Whitten GZ, Killus JP, Dodge MC. 1989. A photochemical mechanism for urban and regional-scale computer modeling. J. Geophys. Res. 94:12925-56
15. Eliason A, Saltbones J. 1983. Modeling of long-range transport of sulphur over Europe: a two year model run and some model experiments. Atmos. Environ. 17:1457-73
16. Simpson D. 1992. Long-period modelling of photochemical oxidants in Europe. model calculations for July 1985. Atmos. Environ. 26:1609-34
17. Simpson D. 1993. Photochemical model calculations over Europe for two extended summer periods: 1985 and 1989: model results and comparison with observations. Atmos. Environ. 27:921-43
18. Hass H, Ebel A, Feldmann H, Jacobs HJ, Memmesheimer M. 1993. Evaluation studies with a regional chemical transport model (EURAD) using air quality data from the EMEP monitoring network. Atmos. Environ. 27A:867-87
19. Morris RE, Myers TC, Douglas SG, Yocke MA, Mirabella V. 1991. Development of a nested-grid urban airshed model and application to Southern California. Presented at Air Waste Manage. Assoc. Meet., Pittsburgh
20. Kumar N, Odman MT, Russell AG. 1993. Multiscale air quality modeling: application to Southern California. J. Geophys. Res. 99:5385-97
21. Kumar N, Russell AG. 1996. Multiscale air quality modeling of the Northeastern United States. Atmos. Environ. 30:1099-1116
22. Kumar N, Russell A. 1996. Development of a computationally efficient, reactive subgrid-scale plume model and the impact in the Northeastern United States using increasing levels of chemical detail. J. Geophys. Res. 101(D11):16737-44
23. Builtjes PJH. 1991. The LOTOS model results, in comparison of three models for long term photochemical oxidants in Europe, ed. T Iverson. EMEP/MSC-W Rep. 3/91, DNMI, Oslo
24. Builtjes PJH. 1992. Long term ozone simulation project, summary report. IMWTNO Rep. R92/240, TNO, Delft, The Netherlands
25. Jin S, Chang JS. 1993. The SARMAP air quality model (SAQM). Presented at AWMA Spec. Conf. Reg. Photochem. Meas. Model. Stud., San Diego
26. Odman MT, Ingram CL. 1996. Multiscale air quality simulation platform (MAQSIP). Source Code Documentation and Validation MCNC Rep. ENV-96TR002-v 1.0, MCNC, Research Triangle Park, NC
27. Sillman S, Logan JA, Wofsy S. 1990. A regional scale model for ozone in the United States with a subgrid scale representation of urban and power plant plumes. J. Geophys. Res. 95:5731-46
28. Sillman S, Samson PJ, Masters JM. 1993. Ozone production in urban plumes transported over water: photochemical models and case studies in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. J. Geophys. Res. 98:12687-99
29. McKeen SA, Hsie E-Y, Trainer M, Tallamraju R, Lui SC. 1991. A regional model study of the ozone budget in the Eastern United States. J. Geophys. Res. 96:10809-45
30. Stern R. 1994. Entwicklun and anwendung eines dreidimensionalen photochemicchen ausbreitung-modells mit vershiedenen chemischen mechanismen. Rep. 8/1, Ser. A, Inst. Meteorol., Free Univ. Berlin
31. Venkatram A, Karamachandani PK, Misra PK. 1988. Testing a comprehensive acid deposition model. Atmos. Environ. 22:737-47
32. Seinfeld JH. 1988. Ozone air quality models: a critical review. J. Air Waste Manage. 38:616-45
33. Peters LK, Berkowitz CM, Carmichael GR, Easter RL, Fairweather G, et al. 1995. The current state and future direction of Eulerian models in simulating tropospheric chemistry and transport of trace species: a review. Atmos. Environ. 29:189-222
34. Elliasen A, Hov O, Isaksen ISA, Saltbones J, Stordal F, et al. 1982. A Lagrangian long-range transport model with atmospheric boundary-layer chemistry. J. Appl. Meteorol. 21:1645-61
35. Fisher BEA. 1982. A review of the processes and models of long range transport of air pollutants. Atmos. Environ. 12:1875-80
36. Elliassen A. 1980. A review of long-range transport of air pollutants: long-range transport modelling. J. Appl. Meteorol. 19:231-40
37. Bruegge B, Riedel E, Russell A, McRae G. 1995. Developing GEMS and environmental modeling systems. IEEE Comput. Sci. Eng. 2:55-68
38. Hansen DA, Dennis RL, Ebel A, Hanna SR, Kaye J, Thullier R. 1994. The quest for an advanced regional air quality model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28:A71-77
39. Dennis R, Novak J. 1995. EPA's third generation modeling system (models-3): an overview. Presented at AWMA Spec. Conf. Tropospheric Ozone Environ., Atlanta
40. Seinfeld JH. 1996. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution. New York: Wiley-Interscience
41. Pasquill F, Smith FB. 1983. Atmospheric Diffusion. Chichester, UK: Ellis Horwood
42. Liu MK, Seinfeld JH. 1975. On the validity of grid and trajectory models of urban air pollution. Atmos. Environ. 9:555-74
43. Lamb RG, Neiburger M. 1971. An interim version of a generalized urban air pollution model. Atmos. Environ. 5:239-64
44. Cass GR. 1981. Sulfate air quality control strategy design. Atmos. Environ. 15:1227-49
45. x- to hydrocarbon-limited conditions for ozone production over the Eastern United States in September. J. Geophys. Res. 100:9315-24
46. Yu TW. 1977. A comparative study on parameterization of vertical turbulent exchange processes. Mon. Weather Rev. 105:57-66
47. Blackadar AK. 1979. High resolution models of the planetary boundary layer. In Advances in Environmental Science and Technology Engineering, pp. 50-85. New York: Gordon & Breach
48. McRae GJ, Goodin WR, Seinfeld JH. 1982. Development of a second generation mathematical model for urban air pollution, I. model formulation. Atmos. Environ. 16:679-96
49. Pielke RA. 1984. Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Orlando, FL: Academic
50. Lin X, Ridley BA, Walega J, Hubler GF, McKeen SA, et al. 1994. A parameterization of subgrid scale convective cloud transport in a mesoscale regional chemistry model. J. Geophys. Res. 99:25615-30
51. Pleim J, Chang J. 1992. A non-local closure method for vertical mixing in the convective boundary layer. Atmos. Environ. 26A:965-81
52. Hicks BB, Wesely ML. 1981. Heat and momentum characteristics of adjacent fields of soybeans and maize. Bound. Layer Meteor. 20:175-85
53. Hicks BB, Wesely ML, Coulter RL, Hart RL, Durham JL, et al. 1983. An experimental study of sulfur deposition to grassland. See Ref. 149, pp. 933-42
54. 3 deposition velocities computed using regional land use and meteorological data. Atmos. Environ. 20:949-64
55. Wesely ML, Cook DR, Hart RL, Speer RE. 1985. Measurements and parameterization of particulate sulfur dry deposition over grass. J. Geophys. Res. 90:2131-43
56. Whelpdale DM, Shaw RW. 1974. Sulfur dioxide removal by turbulent transfer over grass, snow and water surfaces. Tellus 26:196-205
57. Zhang L, Padro J, Walmsley JL. 1996. A multilayer model vs. single layer models and observed ozone dry deposition velocities. Atmos. Environ. 30:339-45
58. Wesely ML, Hicks BB. 1977. Some factors that affect the deposition rates of sulfur dioxide and similar gases on vegetation. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 27:1110-16
59. 2 on agricultural crops. Atmos. Environ. 12:369-73
60. Huebert BJ. 1983. Measurements of the dry-deposition flux of nitric acid vapor to grasslands and forest. See Ref. 149, pp. 785-94
61. Huebert BJ, Robert CH. 1985. The dry deposition of nitric acid to grass. J. Geophys. Res. 90:2085-90
62. McRae GJ, Russell AG. 1983. Dry Deposition of Nitrogen-Containing Species, Deposition Both Wet and Dry, ed. BB Hicks. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Publ.
63. Martin A. 1984. Estimated washout coefficients for sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. Atmos. Environ. 19:1955-61
64. Prupacher H, Klett JD. 1978. Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation. Dordecht, The Netherlands: Dreidel
65. Walcek C, Taylor GR. 1986. A theoretical method for computing vertical distributions of acidity and sulfate production within cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci. 43:339-55
66. Berkowitz CM, Easter RC, Scott BC. 1989. Theory and results from a quasi-steady state precipitation-scavenging model. Atmos. Environ. 23:1555-71
67. Hass H, Builtjes PJH, Simpson D, Stern R. 1996. Comparison of Photo-Oxidant Dispersion Model Results. Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Ger: EUROTRAC, Int. Sci. Seer.
68. Graedel TE, Farrow LA, Weber TA. 1976. Kinetic studies of the photochemistry of the urban troposphere. Atmos. Environ. 10:1095-116
69. Dodge MC. 1989. A comparison of three photochemical oxidant mechanisms. J. Geophys. Res. 94:5121-36
70. Carter WPL. 1990. A detailed mechanism for the gas phase atmospheric reactions of organic compounds. Atmos. Environ. 24A:481-518
71. Stockwell WR. 1986. A homogeneous gas phase mechanism for use in a regional acid deposition model. Atmos. Environ. 20:1615-32
72. Falls AH, Seinfeld JH. 1978. Continued development of a kinetic mechanism for photochemical smog. Environ. Sci. Technol. 12:1398-406
73. Poppe D, Andersson-Skold Y, et al. 1996. Gas-phase reaction in atmospheric chemistry and transport models: a model intercomparison. Eurotrac Spec. Rep., Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Ger.
74. Derwent RG. 1990. Evaluation of a number of chemical mechanisms for their applications in models describing the formation of photochemical ozone in Europe. Atmos. Environ. 24A:2615-24
75. Milford JB, Gao D, Russell AG, McRae GJ. 1992. Use of sensitivity analysis to compare photochemical for air quality modeling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26: 1179-89
76. Yang Y-J, Stockwell WR, Milford JB. 1996. Effect of chemical product yield uncertainties on reactivities on VOCs and emissions from reformulated gasolines and methanol fuels. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30:1392-97
77. Bergin M, Milford J, Russell A. 1995. Quantification of individual VOC reactivity using a chemically detailed three dimensional photochemical model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29:3029-37
78. Pandis S, Seinfeld JH. 1989. Mathematical modeling of acid deposition due to radiation fog. J. Geophys. Res. 94:12911-23
79. Jacob D, Gottlieb EW. 1989. Chemistry of a polluted cloudy boundary layer. J. Geophys. Res. 94:12975-13002
80. McNair L. 1995. Photochemical air quality model evaluation and ROG reactivity analysis. PhD thesis. Carnegie Mellon Univ., Pittsburgh
81. Pandis S, Seinfeld JH, Pilinis C. 1990. Chemical composition differences in fog and cloud droplets of different sizes. Atmos. Environ. 24A:1957-69
82. Wexler A, Seinfeld JH. 1991. A second generation inorganic aerosol model. Atmos. Environ. 25:2731-48
83. Jacobson MZ. 1997. Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system-part III. Aerosol-phase simulations. Atmos. Environ. 31:587-607
84. Madronich S. 1992. Photodissociation in the atmosphere, 1. actinic flux and the effects of reflections and clouds. J. Geophys. Res. D 8:9740-52
85. Ruggaber A, Dlugi R, Nakajima T. 1994. Modeling radiation quantities and photolysis frequencies in the troposphere. J. Atmos. Chem. 18:171-210
86. Friedlander SK. 1977. Smoke, Dust and Haze. New York: Wiley-Interscience
87. Gelbard F, Seinfeld JH. 1980. Simulation of multicomponent aerosol dynamics. J. Colloid. Interfacial Sci. 78:485-501
88. Whitby ER, McMurray PH, Shankar U, Binkowski FS. 1991. Model aerosol dynamics modeling. US EPA Rep. No. 600/3-91/020/, Research Triangle Park, NC
89. Binkowski F, Shankar U. 1995. The regional particulate model. 1. Model description and preliminary results. J. Geophys. Res. 100:26191-209
90. Carmichael GR, Peters LK, Saylor RD. 1991. The STEM-II regional scale acid deposition and photochemical oxidant model - 1. An overview of model development and applications. Atmos. Environ. 25A:2077-90
91. Venkatram A, Karamachandani PK. 1989. The ADOM II Scavenging Module: Incorporation of an Improved Cumulus Cloud Module, ENSR Doc. No. 0780-004-205. Thousand Oaks, CA: ENSR
92. Weber E. 1982. Air Pollution, Assessment Methodology and Modeling. New York: Plenum
93. Dickerson MH. 1978. MASCON-A mass-consistent atmospheric flux model for regions with complex terrain. J. Appl. Meteor. 17:241-53
94. Goodin WR, McRae GJ, Seinfeld JH. 1979. An objective analysis technique for constructing three-dimensional, urban scale wind fields. J. Appl. Meteor. 19:98-108
95. Freuhauf G, Halpern P, Lester P. 1988. Objective analysis of a two-dimensional scalar field by successive corrections using a personal computer. Environ. Software 3:72-80
96. Stauffer DR, Seaman NL. 1990. Use of four dimensional data assimilation in a limited area mesoscale, part I: experiments with synoptic data. Mon. Weather Rev. 118:1250-77
97. Grossi P, Giovannoni J-M, Russell A. 1996. Intercomparison of meteorological models applied to the Athens area and the effect on photochemical pollutant predictions. J. Appl. Meteor. 35:993-1008
98. Modica L, Dulleba D, Walters R, Langstaff J. 1985. Flexible Regional Emissions Data Systems (FREDS) Documentation for the 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory. Prep. for US EPA. Chapel Hill, NC: Alliance Technol.
99. Wilkinson JG, Loomis CF, McNally DE, Emigh RA, Tesche TW. 1994. Technical formulation document: SARMAP/ LMOS emissions modeling system (EMS-95). Alpine Phys. Doc. 90/TS26/ 90/TS27, Pittsburgh
100. Pierson WR, Gertler AW, Bradow RL. 1990. Comparison of the SCAQS tunnel study with other on-road vehicle emissions data. J. Air Waste Manage. 40:1495-1504
101. Geron CD, Guenther AB, Pierce TE. 1994. An improved model for estimating emissions of volatile organic compounds from forests in the Eastern United States. J. Geophys. Res. 99:12773-91
102. Simpson D, Guenther A, Hewitt CN, Steinbrecher R. 1995. Biogenic emissions in Europe. 1. Estimates and uncertainties. J. Geophys. Res. 100:22875-90
103. McRae GJ, Goodin WR, Seinfeld JH. 1982. Development of a second generation mathematical modeling for urban air pollution. I. Model formulation. Atmos. Environ. 16:679-96
104. Hov O, Zlatev Z, Berkowicz R, Eliason Z, Prahm LP. 1990. Comparison of numerical techniques for use in air pollution models with non-linear chemical reactions. Atmos. Environ. 23:967-83
105. Chock DP. 1985. A comparison of numerical methods for solving the advection equation. II. Atmos. Environ. 19:571-86
106. Odman MT, Wilkinson JG, McNair LA, Russell AG, Ingram CL, Houyoux MR. 1996. Horizontal advection solver uncertainty in the urban airshed model. Rep. Calif. Air Resour. Board, Sacramento, Calif.
107. Smolarkiewicz PZ. 1983. A simple positive definite advection transport algorithm with small implicit diffusion. Mon. Weather Rev. 111:479-86
108. Bott A. 1989. A positive definite advection scheme obtained by non-linear renormalization of the advective fluxes. Mon. Weather Rev. 117:1006-15
109. Chock DP, Winkler SL. 1994. A comparison of advection algorithms coupled with chemistry. Atmos. Environ. 28:2659-76
110. Odman MT, Russell AG. 1991. Multiscale finite element pollutant transport scheme for urban and regional modeling. Atmos. Environ. 25A:2785-94
111. Deleted in proof
112. Venkatram A. 1993. Parameterization of the vertical diffusion of a scalar in the atmospheric boundary layer. Atmos. Environ. 27:1963-66
113. Vinokur M. 1974. Conservation equations of gas-dynamics in curvilinear coordinate systems. J. Comput. Phys. 14:105-25
114. Jacobs DJ, Logan JA, et al. 1993. Factors regulating ozone over the United States and its export to the global atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 100:14817-26
115. Liu SC, Trainer M, et al. 1987. Ozone production in the rural troposphere and implications for regional and global ozone distributions. J. Geophys. Res. 92:4191-207
116. Lin XR, Trainer M, Liu SC. 1988. On the non-linearity of the tropospheric ozone production. J. Geophys. Res. 93:15879-88
117. x and VOC strategies in reducing Northeast U.S. ozone concentrations. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 67:161-80
118. Hannah SR, Moore GE, Fernau ME. 1996. Evaluation of photochemical grid models (UAM-IV, UAMV and ROM-UAM-IV couple) using data from the Lake Michigan ozone study (LMOS). Atmos. Environ. 30:3265-81
119. Stewart DA, Liu MK. 1981. Development and application of a reactive plume model. Atmos. Environ. 15:2377-93
120. Hestveldt E, Hov O, Isaksen ISA. 1978. Quasi-steady-state approximations in air pollution modeling: a comparison of two numerical schemes for oxidant prediction. Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 10:971-94
121. Young TR, Boris JP. 1977. A numerical technique for solving ordinary differential equations associated with the chemical kinetics of reactive flow problems. J. Phys. Chem. 81:2424-27
122. Jacobson MZ, Turco RP. 1994. SMVGEAR: A sparse-matrix, vectorized gear code for atmospheric models. Atmos. Environ. 28:273-84
123. Chock DP, Winkler SL, Sun P. 1994. A comparison of stiff chemistry solvers for air quality modeling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28:1882-92
124. Saylor RD, Ford GD. 1995. On the comparison of numerical methods for the integration of kinetic equations in atmospheric chemistry and transport models. Atmos. Environ. 29:2585-93
125. Odman MT, Kumar N, Russell AG. 1992. A comparison of fast chemical kinetic solvers. Atmos. Environ. 26A:1783-89
126. Dabdub D, Seinfeld JH. 1994. Numerical advective schemes used in air quality models-sequential and parallel implementation. Atmos. Environ. 28:3369-85
127. Saylor RD, Fernandez RI. 1993. On the parallelization of a comprehensive regional-scale air quality model. Atmos. Environ. 27:625-31
128. Kumar N, Russell AG, Segall E, Steenkiste P. 1997. Parallel and distributed application of an urban-to-regional multiscale model. Comput. Chem. Eng. 21:399-408
129. Harley RA, Russell AG, McRae GJ, Cass G, Seinfeld JH. 1993. Photochemical air quality modeling of the Southern California air quality study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27:378-88
130. Kumar N, Russell AG. 1996. Comparing prognostic and diagnostic meteorological fields and their impacts on photochemical air quality modeling. Atmos. Environ. 30:1989-2010
131. Kuklin A, Seinfeld JH. 1995. Emissions reductions needed to meet the standard for ozone in Southern California: effect of boundary conditions. Air & Waste 45:899-901
132. McNair LA, Harley RA, Russell AG. 1996. Spatial inhomegeneity in pollutant concentrations and the implications for air quality model evaluation. Atmos. Environ. 30:4291-302
133. Dennis RL, Barchet WR, et al. 1991. Evaluation of regional acidic deposition models (Part 1). NAPAP Rep. 5, Natl. Acid Precip. Program, Washington, DC
134. Jeffries HE, Tonneson J. 1994. A comparison of two photochemical reaction mechanisms using mass balance and process analysis. Atmos. Environ. 28:2991-3003
135. Yang Y-J, Wilkinson J, Russell AG. 1997. Fast, direct sensitivity analysis of multi-dimensional photochemical models. Environ. Sci. Technol. In press
136. Lyons WA. 1992. The use of a mesoscale prognostic model to design a field tracer experiment for the Lake Michigan ozone study. Pap. 82-87.10. Presented at 85th Annu. Meet., AWMA, Kansas City, MO
137. Byun DW, Dennis R. 1995. Design artifacts in Eulerian air quality models: evaluation of layer thickness and vertical profile correction on surface ozone concentrations. Atmos. Environ. 29A:105-26
138. Rodhe H, Crutzen P, Vanderpol A. 1981. Formation of sulfuric and nitric acid in the atmosphere during long range transport. Tellus 33:132-41
139. Russell AG, McCue K, Cass GR. 1988. Mathematical modeling of the formation and transport of nitrogen-containing pollutants. 2. Evaluation of the effects of emission controls. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22:1336-47
140. Chang JS, Binkowski FS, Seaman NL, McHenry JN, Samson PJ, et al. 1989. The regional acid deposition model and engineering model. State-of-Sci./Technol. Rep. 4, Natl. Acid Precip. Assess. Prog., Washington, DC
141. UN Environment Program/World Meteorological Organization. 1989. Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric Ozone: 1989. Washington, DC: UN Environ. Prog.
142. Jacob DJ, Logan JA, Gardner GM, Yevich RM, Spivakovsky CM, et al. 1993. Factors regulating ozone over the United States and its export to the global atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 98:14817-26
143. x emissions. J. Geophys. Res. 99:3533-42
144. McKeen SA, Hsie E-Y, Liu SC. 1991. A study of the dependence of rural ozone on precursors in the Eastern United States. J. Geophys. Res. 96:15377-94
145. Simpson D. 1995. Biogenic emissions in Europe 2. Implications for control strategies. J. Geophys. Res. 100:22891-906
146. Roselle S. 1994. Effects of biogenic emission uncertainties on regional photochemical modeling of control strategies. Atmos. Environ. 28:1757-72
147. x: errors in the fall off region. J Geophys. Res. 102:6159-68
148. Seitz J. 1995. Particulate matter and regional haze. Presented at Fed. Adv. Comm. Act Subcomm. Ozone, Research Triangle Park, NC
149. Pruppacher HR, Semonin RG, Slinn WGN, eds. 1983. Precipitation Scavenging Dry Deposition and Resuspension. New York: Elsevier