Role of tissue factor in thrombosis. Coagulation-inflammation-thrombosis circuit

Frontiers in Bioscience

Volumn 11, Issue 1 P.1-446, 2006, Pages 256-271

  Chu, Arthur J ^a  

^a SHANTOU UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular system; Heart; Hypercoagulability; Inflammation; Protease Activated Receptor; Review; Thrombosis; Tissue Factor; Vessel

Indexed keywords

THROMBUS;

EID: 32844470037     PISSN: 27686701     EISSN: 27686698     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2741/1796     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. Broze G. J. Jr.: Tissue pathway inhibitor and revised theory of coagulation. Annu Rev Med 46, 103-112 (1995)
2. Edgington T. S., Dickinson C.D. & W. Ruf: The structural basis of function of the TF/VIIa complex in the cellular initiation of coagulation. Thromb Haemost 78, 401-405 (1997)
3. Chu A. J.: Biochemical strategies to anticoagulation: a comparative overview. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2, 199-228 (2004)
4. Chu A. J.: Tissue factor mediates inflammation. Arch Biochem Biophys (2005) (in press)
5. Versteeg H. H., M. P. Peppelenbosch & C. A. Spek: Tissue factor signal transduction in angiogenesis. Carcinogenesis 24, 1009-1013 (2003)
6. Fernandez P. M. & F. R. Rickles: Tissue factor and angiogenesis in cancer. Curr Opin Hematol 9, 401-406 (2002)
7. Rosen E.D., J. C. Chan, E. Idusogie, F. Clotman, G. Vlasuk, T. Luther, L.R. Jalbert, S. Albrecht, L. Zhong, A. Lissens, L. Schoonjans, L. Moons, D. Collen, F. J. Castellino & P. Carmeliet: Mice lacking factor VII develop normally but suffer fatal perinatal bleeding. Nature 390, 290-294 (1997)
8. Ott I., E. G. Fischer, Y. Miyagi, B. M. Mueller & W. Ruf: A role for tissue factor in cell adhesion and migration mediated by interaction with actin-binding protein 280. J Cell Biol 140, 1241-1253 (1998)
9. Sorensen B. B., L. V. Rao, D. Tornehave, S. Gammeltoft & L. C. Petersen: Antiapoptotic effect of coagulation factor VIIa. Blood 102, 1708-1715 (2003)
10. Ollivier V., S. Bentolila, J. Chabbat, J. Hakim & D. de Prost: Tissue factor-dependent vascular endothelial growth factor production by human fibroblasts in response to activated factor VII. Blood 91, 2698-2703 (1998)
11. Chu A. J.: Tissue factor upregulation drives a thrombosis-inflammation circuit in relation to cardiovascular complications. Cell Biochem Funct Dec 22; [Epub ahead of print] (2004)
12. Lin M. C., F. Almus-Jacobs, H. H. Chen, G. C. Parry, N. Mackman, J. Y. Shyy & S. Chien: Shear stress induction of the tissue factor gene. J Clin Invest 99, 737-744 (1997)
13. Nimah M. & R. J. Brilli: Coagulation dysfunction in sepsis and multiple organ system failure. Crit Care Clin 19, 441-458 (2003)
14. Lorenzet R., E. Napoleone, A. Celi, G. Pellegrini & A. Di Santo: Cell-cell interaction and tissue factor expression. Blood Coagul Fibrinofysis 9 (S), S49-59 (1998)
15. Giesen P. L. & Y. Nemerson: Tissue factor on the loose. Semin Thromb Hemost 26, 379-384 (2000)
16. Tedgui A. & Z. Mallat: Apoptosis, a major determinant of atherothrombosis. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 96, 671-675 (2003)
17. Bach R. R. & C. F. Moldow: Mechanism of tissue factor activation on HL-60 cells. Blood 89, 3270-3276 (1997)
18. Thomas R. H. Hypercoagulability syndromes. Arch Intern Med. 161, 2433-2439 (2001)
19. Hathcock J.: Vascular biology-the role of tissue factor. Semin Hematol 41(S1), 30-34 (2004)
20. Smith A., J. W. Quarmby, M. Collins, S. M. Lockhart & K. G. Burnand: Changes in the levels of soluble adhesion molecules and coagulation factors in patients with deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 82, 1593-1599 (1999)
21. Day S. M., J. L. Reeve, B. Pedersen, D. M. Farris, D. D. Myers, M. Im, T. W. Wakefield, N. Mackman N. & W. P. Fay: Macrovascular thrombosis is driven by tissue factor derived primarily from the blood vessel wall. Blood 105, 192-198 (2005)
22. Barstad R. M., M. J. Hamers, R. W. Stephens & K. S. Sakariassen: Retinoic acid reduces induction of monocyte tissue factor and tissue factor/factor VIIa-dependent arterial thrombus formation. Blood 86, 212-218 (1995)
23. Barstad R. M., M. J. Hamers, P. Kierulf, A. B. Westvik & K. S. Sakariassen: Procoagulant human monocytes mediate tissue factor/factor VIIa-dependent platelet-thrombus formation when exposed to flowing nonanticoagulated human blood. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15, 11-16 (1995)
24. Speidel C. M., J. D. Thornton, Y. Y. Meng, P. R. Eisenberg, T. S. Edgington & D. R. Abendschein: Procoagulant activity on injured arteries and associated thrombi is mediated primarily by the complex of tissue factor and factor VIIa. Coron Artery Dis 7, 57-62 (1996)
25. Ahmad S., W. P. Jeske, Q. Ma, J. M. Walenga & J. Fareed: Inhibition of tissue factor-activated platelets by low-molecular-weight heparins and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonist. Thromb Res 102, 143-151 (2001)
26. Carr M. E. Jr., E. J. Martin, J. G. Kuhn & S. V. Seremetis: Effects of recombinant factor VIIa on platelet function and clot structure in blood with deficient prothrombin conversion. Thromb Haemost 89, 803-811 (2003)
27. Bouchard B. A., S. Butenas, K. G. Mann & P. B. Tracy: Interaction between platelets and the coagulation system. In Platelets (Ed: Michelson A.) Academic Press, San Diego, p 229-253 (2002)
28. Aledort L. M.: rFVIIa-its thrombogenicity. Thromb Haemost 84, 522-523 (2000)
29. Pawashe A. B., P. Golino, G. Ambrosio, F. Migliaccio, M. Ragni, I. Pascucci, M. Chiariello, R. Bach, A. Garen, W. K. Konigsberg: A monoclonal antibody against rabbit tissue factor inhibits thrombus formation in stenotic injured rabbit carotid arteries. Circ Res 74, 56-63 (1994)
30. Himber J., C. Wohlgensinger, S. Roux, L. A. Damico, J. T. Fallon, D. Kirchhofer, Y. Nemerson & M. A. Riederer: Inhibition of tissue factor limits the growth of venous thrombus in the rabbit. J Thromb Haemost 1, 889-895 (2003)
31. Annex B. H., M. G. Davies, G. J. Fulton, T. T. Huynh, K. M. Channon, M. D. Ezekowitz & P. O. Hagen: Local delivery of a tissue factor antibody reduces early leukocyte infiltration but fails to limit intimal hyperplasia in experimental vein grafts. J Surg Res 80, 164-170 (1998)
32. Pan S., L. S. Kleppe, T. A. Witt, C. S. Mueske & R. D. Simari: The effect of vascular smooth muscle cell-targeted expression of tissue factor pathway inhibitor in a murine model of arterial thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 92, 495-502 (2004)
33. Westrick R. J., P. F. Bodary, Z. Xu, Y. C. Shen, G. J. Broze & D. T. Eitzman: Deficiency of tissue factor pathway inhibitor promotes atherosclerosis and thrombosis in mice. Circulation 103, 3044-3046 (2001)
34. Adams M., L. Breckler, P. Stevens, J. Thorn, R. Baker & R. Oostryck: Anti-tissue factor pathway inhibitor activity in subjects with antiphospholipid syndrome is associated with increased thrombin generation. Haematologica 89, 985-990 (2004)
35. Harker L. A.: Pathogenesis of thrombosis. In Hematology (Eds: Williams WJ, Beutler E, Erslev AJ, Lictman MA.) McGraw-Hill, New York, 1559-1568 (1990)
36. Harker L. A., S. R. Hanson & M. Runge: Thrombin hypothesis of thrombus generation and vascular lesion formation. Am J Cardio 75, 12B-17B (1995)
37. Bouma B. N. & J. C. Meijers: New insights into factors affecting clot stability: A role for thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI; plasma procarboxypeptidase B, plasma procarboxypeptidase U, procarboxypeptidase R) Semin Hematol 41 (S1), 13-19 (2004)
38. van Tilburg N. H., F. R. Rosendaal & R. M. Bertina: Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor and the risk for deep vein thrombosis Blood 95, 2855-2859 (2000)
39. Watanabe R., H. Wada, Y. Watanabe, M. Sakakura, T. Nakasaki, Y. Mori, M. Nishikawa, E. C. Gabazza, T. Nobori & H. Shiku: Activity and antigen levels of thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor in plasma of patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Thromb Res 104, 1-6 (2001)
40. Montaner J., M. Ribo, J. Monasterio, C. A. Molina & J. Alvarez-Sabin: Thrombin-activable fibrinolysis inhibitor levels in the acute phase of ischemic stroke. Stroke 34, 1038-1040 (2003)
41. Juhan-Vague I., J. F. Renucci, M. Grimaux, P. E. Morange, J. Gouvernet, Y. Gourmelin & M. C. Alessi: Thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor antigen levels and cardiovascular risk factors. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20, 2156-2161 (2000)
42. Guimaraes A. H. & D. C. Rijken: Thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) affects fibrinolysis in a plasminogen activator concentration-dependent manner. Study of seven plasminogen activators in an internal clot lysis model. Thromb Haemost 91, 473-479 (2004)
43. Mutch N. J., N. R. Moore, E. Wang & N. A. Booth: Thrombus lysis by uPA, scuPA and tPA is regulated by plasma TAFI. J Thromb Haemost 1, 2000-2007 (2003)
44. Wang W., M. B. Boffa, L. Bajzar, J. B. Walker & M. E. Nesheim: A study of the mechanism of inhibition of fibrinolysis by activated thrombin-activable fibrinolysis inhibitor. J Biol Chem 273, 27176-2781 (1998)
45. Schneider M., N. Brufatto, E. Neill & M. Nesheim: Activated thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor reduces the ability of high molecular weight fibrin degradation products to protect plasmin from antiplasmin. J Biol Chem 279, 13340-13345 (2004)
46. Schneider M. & M. Nesheim: A study of the protection of plasmin from antiplasmin inhibition within an intact fibrin clot during the course of clot lysis. J Biol Chem 279, 13333-13339 (2004)
47. Mandl-Weber S., B. Haslinger & T. Sitter: Thrombin upregulates production of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in human peritoneal mesothelial cells. Peril Dial Int 19, 319-324 (1999)
48. Tappaelli C., R. Metternich & N. S. Cook: Structure and function of thrombin receptors. Trends Pharmcol Sci 14, 426-429 (1993)
49. Soslau G., R. Class, D. A. Morgan, C. Foster, S. T. Lord, P. Marchese & Z. M. Ruggeri: Unique pathway of thrombin-induced platelet aggregation mediated by glycoprotein Ib. J Biol Chem 276, 21173-21183 (2001)
50. Adam F., M. C. Guillin & M. Jandrot-Perrus: Glycoprotein Ib-mediated platelet activation. A signalling pathway triggered by thrombin. Eur J Biochem 270, 2959-2970 (2003)
51. Vergnolle N., C. K. Derian, M. R. D'Andrea, M. Steinhoff & P. Andrade-Gordon: Characterization of thrombin-induced leukocyte rolling and adherence: a potential proinflammatory role for proteinase-activated receptor-4. J Immunol 169, 1467-1473 (2002)
52. Taylor F.B. Jr., A. Chang, W. Ruf, J. H. Morrissey, L. Hinshaw, R. Catlett, M. S. Lockhart & C. T. Esmon: Lethal E. coli septic shock is prevented by blocking tissue factor with monoclonal antibody. Circ. Shock 33, 127-134 (1991)
53. Cunningham M. A., P. Romas, P. Hutchinson, S. R. Holdsworth & P. G. Tipping: Tissue factor and factor VIIa receptor/ligand interactions induce proinflammatory effects in macrophages. Blood 94, 3413-3420 (1999)
54. De Jonge E., P. W. Friederich, G. P. Vlasuk, W. E. Rote, M. B. Vroom, M. Levi & T. van der Poll: Activation of coagulation by administration of recombinant factor VIIa elicits interleukin 6 (IL-6) and IL-8 release in healthy human subjects. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 10, 495-497 (2003)
55. Kruithof E. K., D. Agay, J. C. Mestries, M. P. Gascon & A. Ythier: The effect of factor Xa/phospholipid infusion on the acute phase response in baboons. Thromb Haemost 77, 308-311 (1997)
56. Szaba F. M. & S. T. Smiley: Roles for thrombin and fibrin(ogen) in cytokine/chemokine production and macrophage adhesion in vivo. Blood 99, 1053-1059 (2002)
57. Kruithof E. K., J. C. Mestries, M. P. Gascon & A. Ythier: The coagulation and fibrinolytic responses of baboons after in vivo thrombin generation-effect of interleukin 6. Thromb Haemost 77, 905-910 (1997)
58. Falati S., Q. Liu, P. Gross, G. Merrill-Skoloff, J. Chou, E. Vandendries, A. Celi, K. Croce, B. C. Furie & B. Furie: Accumulation of tissue factor into developing thrombi in vivo is dependent upon microparticle P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 and platelet P-selectin. J Exp Med 197, 1585-1598 (2003)
59. Armstead V. E., A. G. Minchenko, R. Scalla & A. M. Lefer: Pulmonary tissue factor mRNA expression during murine traumatic shock: effect of P-selectin blockade. Shock 15, 323-326 (2001)
60. Andre P., D.Harrwell, I. Hrachovinova, S. Saffaripour & D. D. Wagner: Procoagulant state resulting from high levels of soluble P-selectin in blood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97, 13835-13840 (2000)
61. Sullivan V. V., A. E. Hawley, D. M. Farris, B. S. Knipp, A. J. Varga, S. K. Wrobleski, P. Thanapron, M. J. Eagleton, D. D. Myers, Jr, J. B. Fowlkes & T. W. Wakefield: Decrease in fibrin content of venous thrombi in selectin-deficient mice. J Surg Res 109, 1-7 (2003)
62. Mach F., U. Schonbeck, J. Y. Bonnefoy, J. S. Pober & P. Libby: Activation of monocyte/macrophage functions related to acute atheroma complication by ligation of CD40: induction of collagenase, stromelysin, and tissue factor. Circulation 96, 396-399 (1997)
63. Mackie E. J., C. N. Pagel, R. Smith, M. R. de Niese, S. J. Song & R. N. Pike: Protease-activated receptors: a means of converting extracellular proteolysis into intracellular signals. IUBMB Life 53, 277-281 (2002)
64. Ollivier V., S. Bentolila, J. Chabbat, J. Hakim & D. de Prost: Tissue factor-dependent vascular endothelial growth factor production by human fibroblasts in response to activated factor VII. Blood 91, 2698-2703 (1998)
65. Bachli E. B., C. M. Pech, K. M. Johnson, D. J. Johnson, E. G. Tuddenham & J. H. McVey: Factor Xa and thrombin, but not factor VIIa, elicit specific cellular responses in dermal fibroblasts. J Thromb Haemost 9, 1935-1944 (2003)
66. Lan R. S., D. A. Knight, G. A. Stewart & P. J. Henry: Role of PGE(2) in protease-activated receptor-1, -2 and -4 mediated relaxation in the mouse isolated trachea. Br J Pharmacol 131, 689-694 2000)
67. Rahman A., A. L. True, K. N. Anwar, R. D. Ye, T. A. Voyno-Yasenetskaya & A. B. Malik: Galpha(q) and Gbetagamma regulate PAR-1 signaling of thrombin-induced NF-kappaB activation and ICAM-1 transcription in endothelial cells. Circ Res 91, 398-405 (2002)
68. Ahn H. S., C. Foster, G. Boykow, A. Stamford, M. Manna & M. Graziano: Inhibition of cellular action of thrombin by N3-cyclopropyl-7-((4-(1- methylethyl)phenyl)methyl)-7H-pyrrolo(3,2-f)quinazoline-1,3-diamine (SCH 79797), a nonpeptide thrombin receptor antagonist. Biochem Pharmacol 60, 1425-1434 (2000)
69. Arisato T., K, P. Sarker, K. Kawahara, M. Nakata, T. Hashiguchi, M. Osame, I. Kitajima & I. Maruyama: The agonist of the protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR) but not PAR3 mimics thrombin-induced vascular endothelial growth factor release in human smooth muscle cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 60, 1716-1724 (2003)
70. Stouffer, G. A. & M. S. Runge: The role of secondary growth factor production in thrombin-induced proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Semin Thromb Hemost 24, 145-150 (1998)
71. Lee M. E., S. M. Kweon & S. U. Nham: Fibrin stimulates microfilament reorganization and IL-1 beta production in human monocytic THP-1 cells. Mol Cell 11, 13-20 (2001)
72. Lee M. E., K. J. Rhee & S. U. Nham: Fragment E derived from both fibrin and fibrinogen stimulates interleukin-6 production in rat peritoneal macrophages. Mol Cell 9, 7-13 (1999)
73. Liu X. & T. H. Piela-Smith: Fibrin(ogen)-induced expression of ICAM-1 and chemokines in human synovial fibroblasts. J. Immunol 165, 5255-5261 (2000)
74. Stouffer G. A. & M. S. Runge: The role of secondary growth factor production in thrombin-induced proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Semin Thromb Hemost 24, 145-150 (1998)
75. Szekanecz Z. & A. E. Koch: Vascular endothelium and immune responses: implications for inflammation and angiogenesis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 30, 97-114 (2004)
76. Schmidt V.A., W. C. Nierman, D. R. Maglott, L. D. Cupit, K. A. Moskowitz, J. A. Wainer & W. F. Bahou: The human proteinase-activated receptor-3 (PAR-3) gene. Identification within a Par gene cluster and characterization in vascular endothelial cells and platelets. J Biol Chem 273, 15061-15068 (1998)
77. Libby, P. & D. I. Simon: Inflammation and thrombosis: The clot thickens. Circulation 103, 1718-1720 (2001)
78. Camerer E., J. A. Rottinhen, E. Gjernes, K. Larsen, A. H. Shartlien, J. G. Iversen & H. Prydz: Coagulation factors VIIa and Xa induce cell signaling leading to up-regulation of the egr-1 gene. J Biol Chem 274, 32225-32233 (1999)
79. Akahane K., K. Okamoto, M. Kikuchi, H. Todoroki, A. Higure, T. Ohuchida, K. Kitahara, S. Takeda, H. Itoh & K. Ohsato: Inhibition of factor Xa suppresses the expression of tissue factor in human monocytes and lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxemia in rats. Surgery 130, 809-818 (2001)
80. Chen D., K. Riesbeck, J. H. McVey, G. Kemball-Cook, E. G. Tuddenham, R. I. Lechler & A. Dorling: Human thrombin and FXa mediate porcine endothelial cell activation; modulation by expression of TFPI-CD4 and hirudin-CD4 fusion proteins. Xenotransplantation 8, 258-265 (2001)
81. Langer F., C. Morys-Wortmann, B. Kusters & J. Storck: Endothelial protease-activated receptor-2 induces tissue factor expression and von Willebrand factor release. Br J Haematol 105, 542-550 (1999)
82. Haubitz M., M. Gerlach, H. J. Kruse & R. Brunkhorst: Endothelial tissue factor stimulation by proteinase 3 and elastase. Clin Exp Immunol 126, 584-588 (2001)
83. Scarpati E. M. & J. E. Sadler: Regulation of endothelial cell coagulant properties. Modulation of tissue factor, plasminogen activator inhibitors, and thrombomodulin by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and tumor necrosis factor. J. Biol Chem 264, 20705-20713 (1989)
84. Grignani G. & A. Maiolo: Cytokines and hemostasis. Haematologica 85, 967-972 (2000)
85. Schecter A. D., B. J. Rollins, Y. J. Zhang, I. F. Charo, J. T. Fallon, M. Rossikhina, P. L. A. Giesen, Y. Nemerson & M. B. Taubman: Tissue factor is induced by monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in human aortic smooth muscle and THP-1 cells. J Biol Chem 272, 28568-28573 (1997)
86. Collins P. W., K. E. Noble, J. R. Reittie, A. V. Hoffbrand, K. J. Pasi & K. L. Yong: Induction of tissue factor expression in human monocyte/endothelium cocultures. Br J Haematol 91, 963-970 (1995)
87. Celi A., G. Pellegrini, R. Lorenzet, A. De Blasi, N. Ready, B. C. Furie & B. Furie: P-selectin induces the expression of tissue factor on monocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91, 8767-8771 (1994)
88. Mechtcheriakova D., G. Schabbauer, M. Lucerna, M. Clauss, R. De Martin, B. R. Binder & E. Hofer: Specificity, diversity, and convergence in VEGF and TNF-alpha signaling events leading to tissue factor up-regulation via EGR-1 in endothelial cells. FASEB J 15, 230-242 (2001)
89. Xuereb J. M., P. Sie, B. Boneu & J. Constans: Up-regulation of tissue factor expression by platelet-derived growth factor in human vascular smooth muscle cells in culture-role of mitogen-activated protein kinase and effects of intracellular cyclic AMP. Thromb Haemost 78, 1520-1526 (1997)
90. Caplice N. M., C. S. Mueske, L. S. Kleppe & R. D. Simari: Presence of tissue factor pathway inhibitor in human atherosclerotic plaques is associated with reduced tissue factor activity. Circulation 98, 1051-1057 (1998)
91. Miller D. L., K. Welty-Wolf, M. S. Carraway, M. Ezban, A. Ghio, H. Suliman & C. A. Piantadosi: Extrinsic coagulation blockade attenuates lung injury and proinflammatory cytokine release after intratracheal lipopolysaccharide. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 26, 650-658 (2002)
92. McLean K., S. Schirm, A. Johns, J. Morser & D. R. Light: FXa-induced responses in vascular wall cells are PAR-mediated and inhibited by ZK-807834. Thromb Res 103, 281-297 (2001)
93. Lindmark E. & A. Siegbahn: Tissue factor regulation and cytokine expression in monocyte-endothelial cell cocultures. Effects of a statin, an ACE-inhibitor and a low-molecular-weight heparin. Thromb Res 108, 77-84 (2002)
94. Pernerstorfer T., U. Hollenstein, J. Hansen, M. Knechtelsdorfer, P. Stohlawetz, W. Graninger, H.-G. Eichler, W. Speiser & B. Jilma: Heparin blunts endotoxin-induced coagulation activation. Circulation 100, 2485-2490 (1999)
95. Gertz S. D., J. T. Fallon, R. Gallo, M. B. Taubman, S. Banai, W. L. Barry, L. W. Gimple, Y. Nemerson, S. Thiruvikraman, S. S. Naidu, J. H. Chesebro, V. Fuster, I. J. Sarembock & J. J. Badimon: Hirudin reduces tissue factor expression in neointima after ballon injury in rabbit femoral and porcine coronary arteies. Circulation 98, 580-587 (1998)
96. Chen X., S. Ren, M. G. Ma, S. Dharmalingam, L. Lu, M. Xue, J. Ducas & G. X. Shen: Hirulog-like peptide reduces restenosis and expression of tissue factor and transforming growth factor-beta in carotid artery of atherosclerotic rabbits. Atherosclerosis 169, 31-40 (2003)
97. Souter PJ, Thomas S, Hubbard AR, Poole S, Romisch J, Gray E. (2001) Antithrombin inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced tissue factor and interleukin-6 production by mononuclear cells, human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and whole blood. Crit Care Med 29, 134-9.
98. Hou L., G. L. Howells, S. Kapas & M. G. Macey: The protease-activated receptors and their cellular expression and function in blood-related cells. Br J Haematol 101, 1-9 (1998)
99. Henke P. K., T. W. Wakefield, A. M. Kadell, M. J. Linn, M. R. Varma, M. Sarkar, A. Hawley, J. B. Fowlkes & R. M. Stricter: Interleukin-8 administration enhances venous thrombosis resolution in a rat model. J Surg Res 99, 84-91 (2001)
100. Thanaporn P., D. D. Myers, S. K. Wrobleski, A. E. Hawley, D. M. Farris, T. W. Wakefield & P. J. Henke: P-selectin inhibition decreases post-thrombotic vein wall fibrosis in a rat model. Surgery 134, 365-371 (2003)
101. Palabrica T., R. Lobb, B. C. Furie, M. Aronovitz, C. Benjamin, Y. M. Hsu, S. A. Sajer & B. Furie: Leukocyte accumulation promoting fibrin deposition is mediated in vivo by P-selectin on adherent platelets. Nature 359 (6398), 848-851 (1992)
102. Murphy J. F. & J.L. McGregor: A peptide (P2) derived from the variable heavy chain of an anti-P-selectin monoclonal antibody (LYP20) inhibits leucocyte adhesion to thrombin-activated platelets and endothelial cells. Br J Haematol 120, 605-610 (2003)
103. Toombs C. F., G. L. DeGraaf, J. P. Martin, J. G. Geng, D. C. Anderson & R. J. Shebuski: Pretreatment with a blocking monoclonal antibody to P-selectin accelerates pharmacological thrombolysis in a primate model of arterial thrombosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 275, 941-949 (1995)
104. Wakefield T. W., R. M. Strieter, C. A. Wilke, A. M. Kadell, S. K. Wrobleski, M. D. Burdick, R. Schmidt, S. L. Kunkel, & L. J. Greenfield: Venous thrombosis-associated inflammation and attenuation with neutralizing antibodies to cytokines and adhesion molecules. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15, 258-268 (1995)
105. Selheim F., H. Holmsen & F. S. Vassbotn: Identification of functional VEGF receptors on human platelets. FEBS Lett 512, 107-110 (2002)
106. Tan P., F. W. Luscinskas & S. Homer-Vanniasinkam: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of inflammation and thrombosis. Eur J Vasc Surg 17, 373-389 (1999)
107. Leytin V., S. Shakoor, M. Mody, D. Allen, B. Garvey & J. Freedman: Sepsis- and endotoxemia-generated cytokines do not trigger activation of human platelets. Crit. Care Med. 30, 2771-2773 (2002)
108. Hayden M., M. Pignone, C. Phillips & C. Mulrow: Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 136, 161-172 (2002)
109. McKenzie M. E., A. I. Malinin, C. R. Bell, A. Dzhanashvili, E. D. Horowitz, B. R. Oshrine, D. Atar & V. L. Serebruany Aspirin inhibits surface glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, P-selectin, CD63, and CD107a receptor expression on human platelets. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 14, 249-253 (2003)
110. Pitt B., C. Pepine & J. T. Willerson: Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition and cardiovascular events. Circulation 106, 167-169 (2002)
111. de Gaetano G., M. B. Donati & C. Cerletti: Prevention of thrombosis and vascular inflammation: benefits and limitations of selective or combined COX-1, COX-2 and 5-LOX inhibitors. Trends Pharmacol Sci 24, 245-252 (2003)
112. Cheung W. M., M. R. D'Andrea, P. Andrade-Gordon & B. P. Damiano: Altered vascular injury responses in mice deficient in protease-acctivated receptor-1. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19, 3014-3024 (1999)
113. Major C. D., R. J. Santulli, C. K. Derian & P. Andrade-Gordon: Extracellular mediators in atherosclerosis and thrombosis: lessons from thrombin receptor knockout mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23, 931-939 (2003)
114. Matsuyama M., K. Akioka, M. Okamoto, Y. Kadotani, K. Nakamura, H. Ushigome, Y. Ohmori, R. Yoshimura, T. Nakatani & N. Yoshimura: Control of renal ischemic reperfusion injury by antisense oligodeoxynuceotide of tissue factor. Tansplant Proc 35, 103-104 (2003)
115. Ghrib F., P. Leger, M. Ezban, A. Kristensen, J. Cambus & B. Boneu: Anti-thrombotic and haemorrhagic effects of active site-inhibited factor VIIa in rats. Br J Haematol 112, 506-512 (2001)
116. Lev E. I., J. D. Mamur, M. Zdravkovic, J. I. Osende, J. Robbins, J. A. Delfin, M. Richard, E. Erhardtsen, M. S. Thomsen, A. M. Lincoff & J. J. Badimon: Antithrombotic effect of tissue factor inhibition by inactivated Factor VIIa. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22, 1036-1041 (2002)
117. Orvim U., R. M. Barstad, L. Orning, L. B. Petersen, M. Ezban, U. Hedner & K. S. Sakariassen: Antithrombotic efficacy of inactivated active site recombinant factor VIIa is shear dependent in human blood. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17, 3049-3056 (1997)
118. Kirchhofer D., T. B. Tschopp & H. R. Baumgartner: Active site-blocked factors VIIa and IXa differentially inhibit fibrin formation in a human ex vivo thrombosis model. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15, 1098-1106 (1995)
119. Himber J., C. J. Refino, L. Burcklen, S. Roux & D. Kirchhofer: Inhibition of arterial thrombosis by a soluble tissue factor mutant and active site-blocked factors IXa and Xa in the guinea pig. Thromb Haemost 85, 475-481 (2001)
120. Orning L., P. M. Fischer, C. K. Hu, E. Agner, M. Engebretsen, M. Husbyn, L. B. Petersen, U. Orvim, M. Llinas & K. S. Sakariassen: A cyclic pentapeptide derived from the second EGF-like domain of Factor VII is an inhibitor of tissue factor dependent coagulation and thrombus formation. Thromb Haemost 87, 13-21 (2002)
121. Szalony J. A., O. D. Suleymanov, A. K. Salyers, S. G. Panzer-Knodle, J. D. Blom, R. M. LaChance, B. L. Case, J. J. Parlow, M. S. South, R. S. Wood & N. S. Nicholson: Administration of a small molecule tissue factor/factor VIIa inhibitor in a non-human primate thrombosis model of venous thrombosis: effects on thrombus formation and bleeding time. Thromb Res 112, 167-174 (2003)
122. Nijkeuter M. & M. V. Huisman: Pentasaccharides in the prophylaxis and treatment of venous thromboembolism: a systematic review. Curr Opin Pulm Med 10, 338-344 (2004)
123. Bergqvist D.: Enoxaparin: a pharmacoeconomic review of its use in the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism and in acute coronary syndromes. Pharmacoeconomics 20, 225-243 (2002)
124. Chapman T. M. & K. L. Goa: Bemiparin: a review of its use in the prevention of venous thromboembolism and treatment of deep vein thrombosis. Drugs 63, 2357-2377 (2003)
125. Wellington K., K. McClellan & B. Jarvis: Reviparin: a review of its efficacy in the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism. Drugs 61, 1185-1209 (2001)
126. Diquelou A., D. Dupouy, R. Cariou, K. S. Sakariassen, B. Boneu & Y. Cadroy: A comparative study of the anticoagulant and anti-thrombotic effects of unfractionated heparin and a low molecular weight heparin (Fraxiparine) in an experimental model of human venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 74, 1286-1292 (1995)
127. Cheer S. M., C. J. Dunn & R. Foster Tinzaparin sodium: a review of its pharmacology and clinical use in the prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic disease. Drugs 64, 1479-1502 (2004)
128. Pineo G. F. & R. D. Hull: Dalteparin sodium. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2, 1325-1337 (2001)
129. Bal dit Sollier C., C. Kang, N. Berge, J. P. Herault, M. Bonneau, J. M. Herbert & L. Drouet: Activity of a synthetic hexadecasaccharide (SanOrg123781A) in a pig model of arterial thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2, 925-930 (2004)
130. Ragosta M., L. W. Gimple, S. D. Gertz, C. T. Dunwiddie, G. P. Vlasuk, H. L. Haber, E. R. Powers, W. C. Roberts & I. J. Sarembock: Specific factor Xa inhibition reduces restenosis after balloon angioplasty of atherosclerotic femoral arteries in rabbits. Circulation 89, 1262-1271 (1994)
131. Orvim U., R. M. Barstad, G. P. Vlasuk & K. S. Sakariassen: Effect of selective factor Xa inhibition on arterial thrombus formation triggered by tissue factor/factor VIIa or collagen in an ex vivo model of shear-dependent human thrombogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15, 2188-2194 (1995)
132. Kaiser B., W. Jeske, J. M. Walenga & J. Fareed: Inactivation of factor Xa by the synthetic inhibitor DX-9065a causes strong anticoagulant and antiplatelet actions in human blood. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 10, 495-501 (1999)
133. Iba T., A. Kidokoro, M. Fukunaga, S. Fuse, M. Suda, S. Kunitada & T. Kara: Factor Xa-inhibitor (DX-9065a) modulates the leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction in endotoxemic rat. Shock 17, 159-162 (2002)
134. Yokoyama T., A. B. Kelly, U. M. Marzec, S. R. Hanson, S. Kunitada & L. A. Harker: Antithrombotic effects of orally active synthetic antagonist of activated factor X in nonhuman primates. Circulation 92, 485-491 (1995)
135. Abendschein D. R., P. K. Baum, D. R. Light & J. Morser: Effect of vascular injury on inhibition of venous thrombosis with ZK-807834, a direct inhibitor of factor Xa. J Thromb Haemost 1, 1955-1958 (2003)
136. McClanahan T. B., G. W. Hicks, A. L. Morrison, Y. W. Peng, N. Janiczek-Dolphin, T. E. Mertz, M. E. Sullivan, J. Morser, P. L. Juneau & R. Leadley: The antithrombotic effects of CI-1031 (ZK-807834) and enoxaparin in a canine electrolytic injury model of arterial and venous thrombosis. Eur J Pharmacol 432, 187-194 (2001)
137. Wong P. C., M. L. Quan, E. J. Crain, C. A. Watson, R. R. Wexler & R. M. Knabb: Nonpeptide factor Xa inhibitors: I. Studies with SF303 and SK549, a new class of potent antithrombotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 292, 351-357 (2000)
138. Sato K., Y. Taniuchi, T. Kawasaki, F. Hirayama, H. Koshio, Y. Matsumoto & Y. Iizumi: Comparison of the anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects of YM-75466, a novel orally-active factor Xa inhibitor, and warfarin in mice. Jpn J Pharmacol 78, 191-197 (1998)
139. Rebello S. S., R. G. Bentley, S. R. Morgan, C. J. Kasiewski, V. Chu, M. H. Perrone & R. J. Leadley: Antithrombotic efficacy of a novel factor Xa inhibitor, FXV673, in a canine model of coronary artery thrombolysis. Br J Pharmacol 133, 1190-1198 (2001)
140. Wong P. C., E. J. Crain, C. A. Watson, A. M. Zaspel, M. R. Wright, P. Y. Lam, D. J. Pinto, R. R. Wexler & R. M. Knabb: Nonpeptide factor Xa inhibitors III: effects of DPC423, an orally-active pyrazole antithrombotic agent, on arterial thrombosis in rabbits. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 303, 993-1000 (2002)
141. Pruitt J. R., D. J. Pinto, M. J. Estrella, L. L. Bostrom, R. M. Knabb, P. C. Wong, M. R. Wright & R. R. Wexler: Isoxazolines and isoxazoles as factor Xa inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 10, 685-689 (2000)
142. Bostwick J. S., R. Bentley, S. Morgan, K. Brown, V. Chu, W. R. Ewing, A. P. Spada, H. Pauls, M. H. Perrone, C. T. Dunwiddie & R. J. Jr. Leadley: RPR120844, a novel, specific inhibitor of coagulation factor Xa inhibits venous thrombosis in the rabbit. Thromb Haemost 81, 157-160 (1999)
143. Nutescu E., M. Singh-Khalsa; Heparin Consensus Group: Treatment of venous thromboembolism: challenging the unfractionated heparin standard. Pharmacotherapy 24(8 Pt 2), 127S-131S (2004)
144. Fischer K. G.: The role of recombinant hirudins in the management of thrombotic disorders. BioDrugs 18, 235-268 (2004)
145. Dager W. E., T. G. Vondracek, B. A. McIntosh & E. A. Nutescu: Ximelagatran: An Oral Direct Thrombin Inhibitor (CE) Ann Pharmacother 38, 1881-1897 (2004)
146. Fareed J. & W. P. Jeske: Small-molecule direct antithrombins: argatroban. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 17, 127-138 (2004)
147. Vogel G. M., D. G. Meuleman, T. G. Van Dinther, R. Buijsman, A. W. Princen & M. J. Smit: Antithrombotic properties of a direct thrombin inhibitor with a prolonged half-life and AT-mediated factor Xa inhibitory activity. J Thromb Haemost 1, 1945-1954 (2003)
148. Lindahl A. K., P. M. Sandset, M. Thune-Wiiger, O. Nordfang & K. S. Sakariassen: Tissue factor pathway inhibitor prevents thrombus formation on procoagulant subendothelial matrix. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 5, 755-760 (1994)
149. Holst J., B. Lindblad, D. Bergqvist, O. Nordfang, P. B. Ostergaard, J. G. Petersen, G. Nielsen & U. Hedner: Antithrombotic effect of recombinant truncated tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI1-161) in experimental venous thrombosis-a comparison with low molecular weight heparin. Thromb Haemost 71, 214-219 (1994)
150. Sheppard D. R.: Activated protein C resistance: the most common risk factor for venous thromboembolism. J Am Board Fam Pract 13, 111-115 (2000)
151. Bhattacharyya M., M. Kannan, V. P. Chaudhry & R. Saxena: Venous thrombosis: prevalence of prothrombotic defects in north Indian population. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 46, 621-624 (2003)
152. Espana F., A. Vaya, Y. Mira, P. Medina, A. Estelles, P. Villa, C. Falco & J. Aznar: Low level of circulating activated protein C is a risk factor for venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost 86, 1368-1373 (2001)
153. Urano T., F. J. Castellino, H. Ihara, Y. Suzuki, M. Ohta, K. Suzuki & H. Mogami: Activated protein C attenuates coagulation-associated over-expression of fibrinolytic activity by suppressing the thrombin-dependent
154. Bajzar L., M.E. Nesheim & P. B. Tracy: The profibrinolytic effect of activated protein C in clots formed from plasma is TAFI-dependent. Blood 88, 2093-2100 (1996)
155. Jackson C. V., B. D. Bailey & T. J. Shetler: Pharmacological profile of recombinant, human activated protein C (LY203638) in a canine model of coronary artery thrombosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 295, 967-971 (2000)
156. Aoki Y., Y. Fukumoto, K. Inoue, Y. Katsuura, K. Komoriya & S. Miyamoto: Effect of activated human protein C on experimental venous thrombosis induced by stasis with operative invasion in mice. Arzneimittelforschung 50, 695-699 (2000)
157. Kurz K. D., T. Smith, A. Wilson, B. Gerlitz, M. A. Richardson & B. W. Grinnell: Antithrombotic efficacy in the guinea pig of a derivative of human protein C with enhanced activation by thrombin. Blood 89, 534-540 (1997)
158. Araki H., K. Nishi, N. Ishihara & K. Okajima: Inhibitory effects of activated protein C and heparin on thrombotic arterial occlusion in rat mesenteric arteries. Thromb Res 62, 209-216 (1991)
159. Gruber A., S. R. Hanson, A. B. Kelly, B. S. Yan, N. Bang, J. H. Griffin & L. A. Harker: Inhibition of thrombus formation by activated recombinant protein C in a primate model of arterial thrombosis. Circulation 82, 578-585 (1990)
160. Malm K., B. Dahlback & B. Arnljots: Prevention of thrombosis following deep arterial injury in rats by bovine activated protein C requiring co-administration of bovine protein S. Thromb Haemost 90, 227-234 (2003)
161. Arnljots B., D. Bergqvist & B. Dahlback: Inhibition of microarterial thrombosis by activated protein C in a rabbit model. Thromb Haemost 72, 415-420 (1994)
162. Foo R. S., A. H. Gershlick, K. Hogrefe, J. H. Baron, T. W. Johnston, A. J. Hussey, I. Garner & D. P. de Bono: Inhibition of platelet thrombosis using an activated protein C-loaded stent: in vitro and in vivo results. Thromb Haemost 83, 496-502 (2000)
163. Ostrovsky L., R. C. Woodman, D. Payne, D. Teoh & P. Kubes: Antithrombin III prevents and rapidly reverses leukocyte recruitment in ischemia/reperfusion. Circulation 96, 2302-2310 (1997)
164. Bauer K. A.: Low intensity warfarin: is it clinically useful in venous thromboembolism management? Br J Haematol 127, 155-158 (2004)
165. Nose T., Y. Shimohigashi, M. Ohno, T. Costa, N. Shimizu & Y. Ogino: Enhancement of thrombin receptor activation by thrombin receptor-derived heptapeptide with parafluorophenylalanine in place of phenylalalnine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 193, 694-699 (1993)
166. Elliott J. T., W. J. Hoekstra, B. E. Maryanoff & G. D. Prestwich: Photoactivatable peptides based on BMS-197525: A potent antagonist of the human thrombin receptor (PAR-1) Bioorg Med Chem Lett 9, 279-284 (1999)
167. Damiano B. P., C. K. Derian, B. E. Maryanoff, H. C. Zhang & P. A. Gordon: RWJ-58259: a selective antagonist of protease activated receptor-1. Cardiovasc Drug Rev 21, 313-326 (2003)
168. Derian C. K., B. P. Damiano, M. F. Addo, A. L. Darrow, M. R. D'Andrea, M. Nedelman, H. C. Zhang, B. E. Maryanoff & P. Andrade-Gordon: Blockade of the thrombin receptor protease-activated receptor-1 with a small-molecule antagonist prevents thrombus formation and vascular occlusion in nonhuman primates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304, 855-861 (2003)
169. Andrade-Gordon P., C. K. Derian, B. E. Maryanoff, H. C. Zhang, M. F. Addo, W. M. Cheung, B. P. Damiano, M. R. D'Andrea, A. L. L. Darrow, de Garavilla, A. J. Eckardt, E. C. Giardino, B. J. Haertlein & D. F. McComsey: Administration of a potent antagonist of protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) attenuates vascular restenosis following balloon angioplasty in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 298, 34-42 (2001)
170. Kato Y., Y. Kita, Y. Hirasawa-Taniyama, M. Nishio, K. Mihara, K. Ito, T. Yamanaka, J. Seki, S. Miyata & S. Mutoh: Inhibition of arterial thrombosis by a protease-activated receptor 1 antagonist, FR171113, in the guinea pig. Eur J Pharmacol 473, 163-169 (2003)
171. Wu C. C., T. L. Hwang, C. H. Liao, S. C. Kuo, F. Y. Lee, C. Y. Lee & C. M. Teng: Selective inhibition of protease-activated receptor 4-dependent platelet activation by YD-3. Thromb Haemost 87, 1026-1033 (2000)
172. Takada M., H. Tanaka, T. Yamada, O. Ito, M. Kogushi, M. Yanagimachi, T. Kawamura, T. Musha, F. Yoshida, M. Ito, H. Kobayashi, S. Yoshitake & I. Saito: Antibody to thrombin receptor inhibits neointimal smooth muscle cell accumulation without causing inhibition of platelet aggregation or altering hemostatic parameters after angioplasty in rat. Cir Res 82, 980-987 (1998)
173. Cook J. J., G. R. Sitko, B. Bednar, C. Condra, M. J. Mellott, D. M. Feng, R. F. Nutt, J. A. Shafer, R. J. Gould & T. M. Connolly: An antibody against the exosite of the coned thrombin receptor inhibits experiemental arterial thrombosis in the African green monkey. Circulation 9, 2961-2971 (1995)
174. Willerson J.T. & P. M. Ridker: Inflammation as a cardiovascular risk factor. Circulation 109(S II), II2-10 (2004)
175. Holvoet P. & D. Collen: Thrombosis and atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 8, 320-328 (1997)
176. Fareed J., D. A. Hoppensteadt & R. L. Bick: Management of thrombotic and cardiovascular disorders in the new millenium. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 9, 101-108 (2003)
177. Sorensen B. B., U. Hedner & E. Erhardtsen: rFVIIai in Acute Coronary Syndromes. Semin Vasc Med 3, 199-204 (2003)
178. Montalescot G., J. P. Collet, M. L. Tanguy, A. Ankri, L. Payot, R. Dumaine, R. Choussat, F. Beygui, V. Gallois & D. Thomas: Anti-Xa activity relates to survival and efficacy in unselected acute coronary syndrome patients treated with enoxaparin. Circulation 110, 392-398 (2004)
179. Chen A. A. & M. S. Sabatine: The management of unstable angina and non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infartion. Minerva Cardioangiol 51, 433-445 (2003)
180. Yan A. T. & S. G. Goodman: Low-molecular-weight heparins in ischemic heart disease. Curr Opin Cardiol 19, 309-316 (2004)
181. Petersen J. L., K. W. Mahaffey, V. Hasselblad, E. M. Antman, M. Cohen, S. G. Goodman, A. Langer, M. A. Blazing, A. Le-Moigne-Amrani, J. A. de Lemos, C. C. Nessel, R. A. Harrington, J. J. Ferguson, E. Braunwald & R. M. Califf: Efficacy and bleeding complications among patients randomized to enoxaparin or unfractionated heparin for antithrombin therapy in non-ST-Segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: a systematic overview. JAMA 292, 89-96 (2004)
182. Lincoff A. M., J. A. Bittl, N. S. Kleiman, I. J. Sarembock, J. D. Jackman, S. Mehta, M. A. Tannenbaum, A. L. Niederman, W. B. Bachinsky, J. Tift-Mann 3rd, H. G. Parker, D. J. Kereiakes, R. A. Harrington, F. Feit, E. S. Maierson, D. P. Chew & E. J. Topol: REPLACE-1 Investigators: Comparison of bivalirudin versus heparin during percutaneous coronary intervention (the Randomized Evaluation of PCI Linking Angiomax to Reduced Clinical Events (REPLACE)-1 trial) Am J Cardiol 93, 1092-1096 (2004)
183. Bates E. R.: Bivalirudin: an anticoagulant option for percutaneous. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2, 153-162 (2004)
184. Carswell C. I. & G. L. Plosker: Bivalirudin: A Review of its Potential Place in the Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes. Drugs 62, 841-870 (2002)
185. Hofmann T.: Clinical application of enoxaparin. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2, 321-337 (2004)
186. Halperin J.L.: Ximelagatran: oral direct thrombin inhibition as anticoagulant therapy in atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 45, 1-9 (2005)
187. Harrigan M. R., E. I. Levy, B. R. Bendok & L. N. Hopkins: Bivalirudin for endovascular intervention in acute ischemic stroke: case report. Neurosurgery 54, 218-222 (2004)
188. Sinnaeve P. R. & F. J. Van de Werf: Will oral antithrombin agents replace warfarin? The new oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran is at least equivalent to warfarin for stroke prevention in patients with non-valvar atrial fibrillation, and seems to be a promising adjunct to aspirin after acute coronary syndrome. Heart 90, 827-828 (2004)
189. Chackalamannil S.: G-protein coupled receptor antagonists-1: protease activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) antagonists as novel cardiovascular therapeutic agents. Curr Top Med Chem 3, 1115-2113 (2003)
190. McGuire J. J.: Proteinase-activated Receptor 2 (PAR2): a challenging new target for treatment of vascular diseases. Curr Pharm Des 10, 2769-2778 (2004)