Uveitis: A potentially blinding disease

Ophthalmologica

Volumn 218, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 223-236

  Durrani, O M ^a   Meads, C A ^a   Murray, P I ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b CITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Blindness; Cost of blindness; Epidemiology of uveitis; Uveitis; Uveitis, quality of life

Indexed keywords

ADALIMUMAB; ALEMTUZUMAB; ALKYLATING AGENT; ALPHA2A INTERFERON; ANTIMETABOLITE; AZATHIOPRINE; CHLORAMBUCIL; COLCHICINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN; ETANERCEPT; HLA B27 ANTIGEN; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INFLIXIMAB; INTERLEUKIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTIBODY; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE SODIUM SUCCINATE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PENICILLIN G; PREDNISOLONE; RETINA S ANTIGEN; TACROLIMUS; TRIAMCINOLONE;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AWARENESS; BLINDNESS; CATARACT; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG TISSUE LEVEL; DRUG TOLERABILITY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; EYE INFLAMMATION; EYE INJURY; EYE MALFORMATION; GLAUCOMA; HUMAN; IMMUNOBIOLOGY; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE ABNORMALITY; LONG TERM CARE; LUNG TUBERCULOSIS; ONCHOCERCIASIS; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; PHTHISIS BULBI; QUALITY OF LIFE; RETINA DETACHMENT; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; RETINA MACULA CYSTOID EDEMA; RETINA MACULA DEGENERATION; RETINOL DEFICIENCY; RETROLENTAL FIBROPLASIA; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SOCIOECONOMICS; SUSTAINED RELEASE FORMULATION; SYSTEMIC DISEASE; TAPETORETINAL DEGENERATION; TRACHOMA; TUBERCULOSIS; UVEITIS; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT; VITREOUS HEMORRHAGE;

BLINDNESS; COST OF ILLNESS; HUMANS; QUALITY OF LIFE; UVEITIS;

EID: 3242806758     PISSN: 00303755     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000078612     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Rothova A, Suttorp-van Schulten MS, Frits Treffers W, Kijlstra A: Causes and frequency of blindness in patients with intraocular inflammatory disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1996;80:332-336.
2. Stanbury RM, Graham EM, Murray PI: Sarcoidosis. Int Ophthalmol Clin 1995;35:123-137.
3. Whallett AJ, Thurarirajan G, Hamburger J, Murray PI, Palmer RG: Behçet's syndrome: A multidisciplinary approach to clinical care. QMJ 1999;117:727-740.
4. Martin TM, Smith JR, Rosenbaum JT: Anterior uveitis: Current concepts of pathogenesis and interactions with the spondyloarthropathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2002;14:337-341.
5. Hovakimyan A, Cunningham ETJ: Ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmol Clin North Am 2002;15:327-332.
6. Thean JH, Hall AJ, Stawell RJ: Uveitis in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2001;29:406-410.
7. Van Gelder RN, Willig JL, Holland GN, Kaplan HJ: Herpes simplex virus type 2 as a cause of acute retinal necrosis syndrome in young patients. Ophthalmology 2001;108:869-876.
8. Bloch-Michel E, Nussenblatt RB: International uveitis study recommendations for the evaluation of intraocular inflammatory disease. Am J Ophthalmol 1987;103:234-235.
9. Rihova E, Havlikova M, Michalova K, Strasmajer V, Poch T: Acute anterior uveitis, systemic diseases and HLA-B27. Ceska A Slovenska Oftalmologie 1997;53:80-87.
10. Brewerton DA, Hart FD, Nicholls A, Caffrey M, James DC, Sturrock RD: Ankylosing spondylitis and HL-A 27. Lancet 1973;i:904-907.
11. Nussenblatt RB, Whitcup SC, Palestine AG: Uveitis. Fundamentals and Clinical Practice, ed 2. St Louis, Mosby, 1996.
12. Boyd SR, Young S, Lightman S: Immunopathology of the noninfectious posterior and intermediate uveitides. Surv Ophthalmol 2001;46:209-233.
13. Cunningham ET Jr: Uveitis in children. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2000;8:251-261.
14. Kanski JJ: Juvenile arthritis and uveitis. Surv Ophthalmol 1990;34:253-267.
15. Rosenberg AM: Uveitis associated with childhood rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2002;14:542-547.
16. Boone MI, Moore TL, Cruz OA: Screening for uveitis in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1998;35:41-43.
17. Forrester AJ: Uveitis: Pathogenesis. Lancet 1991;338:1498-1501.
18. Lightman S: Uveitis: What do we know and how does it help? Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2001;29:48-51.
19. Whitcup SM, Nussenblatt RB: Immunologic mechanisms of uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115:520-525.
20. Dick AD: Immune mechanisms of uveitis: Insights into disease pathogenesis and treatment. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2000;40:1-18.
21. Durrani OM, Curnow SJ, Faint JM, Salmon M, Murray PI: Enumeration, characterisation and clinical correlation of cellular infiltrate in uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001;42(suppl):581.
22. Curnow SJ, Faint JM, Durrani OM, Salmon M, Murray PI: CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes of naive and memory phenotype in uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001;42(suppl):919.
23. Murray P, Young D: Soluble interleukin-2 receptors in retinal vasculitis. Curr Eye Res 1992;11(suppl):193-195.
24. Sugi-Ikai N, Nakazawa M, Nakamura S, Ohno S, Minami M: Increased frequencies of interleukin-2 and interferon-γ-producing T cells in patients with active Behçets disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998;39:996-1004.
25. Dick AD, Cheng YF, Purdie AT, Liversidge J, Forrester JV: Immunocytochemical analysis of blood lymphocytes in uveitis. Eye 1992;6:643-647.
26. Dick AD, Siepmann K, Dees C, Duncan L, Broderick C, Liversidge J, Forrester JV: Fas-Fas ligand-mediated apoptosis within aqueous during idiopathic acute anterior uveitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999;40:2258-2267.
27. Curnow SJ, Rauz S, Durrani OM, Faint JM, Jenkinson W, Raza K, Salmon M, Murray PI: Inhibition of spontaneous lymphocyte apoptosis contributes to the breakdown of immune privilege in uveitis. Annual Meeting Abstract Search and Program Planner (on CD-ROM). Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology 2002, abstr 1535.
28. Streilein JW, Taylor AW: Local immunosuppression: The eye; in Thomson A (ed): Therapeutic Immunosuppression (Immunology and Medicine Series). Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic, 2001, pp 275-322.
29. Streilein JW: Ocular immune privilege: Therapeutic opportunities from an experiment of nature. Nat Rev Immunol 2003;3:879-899.
30. Griffith TS, Brunner T, Fletcher S, Green DR, Ferguson TA: Fas ligand-induced apoptosis as a mechanism of immune privilege. Science 1995;270:1189-1192.
31. Streilein JW: Ocular immune privilege: The eye takes a dim but practical view of immunity and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2003;74:179-185.
32. Darrell RW, Wagner HP, Kurland LT: Epidemiology of uveitis: Incidence and prevalence in a small urban community. Arch Ophthalmol 1962;68:502-514.
33. Mortensen KK, Slolie AK, Goldschmidt E: Uveitis: eine epidemiologische Untersuchung. Dtsch Ophthalmol Ges 1981;78:97-101.
34. Vadot E, Barth E, Billet P: Epidemiology of uveitis - Preliminary results of a prospective study in Savoy; in Saari K (ed): Uveitis Update. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1984, pp 13-16.
35. Baarasma GS: The epidemiology and genetics of endogenous uveitis: A review. Curr Eye Res 1992;11(suppl):1-9.
36. Tran VT, Auer C, Guex-Crosier Y, Pittet N, Herbort CP: Epidemiology of uveitis in Switzerland. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 1994;2:169-176.
37. Chang JH, Wakefield D: Uveitis: A global perspective. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2002;10:263-279.
38. Miettinen R: Incidence of uveitis in Northern Finland. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1977;55:252-260.
39. Dandona L, Dandona R, John RK, McCarty CA, Rao GN: Population-based assessment of uveitis in an urban population in southern India. Br J Ophthalmol 2000;84:706-709.
40. Rodriguez A, Calonge M, Pedroza-Seres M, Akova YA, Messmer EM, D'Amico DJ, Foster CS: Referral patterns of uveitis in a tertiary eye care center. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:593-599.
41. McCannel CA, Holland GN, Helm CJ, Cornell PJ, Winston JV, Rimmer TG: Causes of uveitis in the general practice of ophthalmology. UCLA Community-Based Uveitis Study Group. Am J Ophthalmol 1996;121:35-46.
42. Wakefield D, Dunlop I, McCluskey PJ, Penny R: Uveitis: Aetiology and disease associations in an Australian population. Aust NZ J Ophthalmol 1986;14:181-187.
43. Thean LH, Thompson J, Rosenthal AR: A uveitis register at the Leicester Royal Infirmary. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 1996;3:151-158.
44. Paivonsalo-Hietanen T, Vaahtoranta-Lehtonen H, Tuominen J, Saari KM: Uveitis survey at the University Eye Clinic in Turku. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1994;72:505-512.
45. Smit RL, Baarsma GS, de Vries J: Classification of 750 consecutive uveitis patients in the Rotterdam Eye Hospital. Int Ophthalmol 1993;17:71-76.
46. Pivetti-Pezzi P, Accorinti M, La Cava M, Colabelli Gisoldi RA, Abdulaziz MA: Endogenous uveitis: An analysis of 1,417 cases. Ophthalmologica 1996;210:234-238.
47. Perkins ES, Folk J: Uveitis in London and Iowa. Ophthalmologica 1984;189:36-40.
48. Merrill PT, Kim J, Cox TA, Betor CC, McCallum RM, Jaffe GJ: Uveitis in the southeastern United States. Curr Eye Res 1997;16:865-874.
49. Henderly DE, Genstler AJ, Smith RE, Rao NA: Changing patterns of uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1987;103:131-136.
50. Biswas J, Narain S, Das D, Ganesh SK: Pattern of uveitis in a referral uveitis clinic in India. Int Ophthalmol 1996-97;20:223-228.
51. Rathinam SR, Cunningham ET Jr: Infectious causes of uveitis in the developing world. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2000;40:137-152.
52. Ronday MJ, Stilma JS, Barbe RF, Kijlstra A, Rothova A: Blindness from uveitis in a hospital population in Sierra Leone. Br J Ophthalmol 1994;78:690-693.
53. Ronday MJ, Stilma JS, Barbe RF, McElroy WJ, Luyendijk L, Kolk AH, Bakker M, Kijlstra A, Rothova A: Aetiology of uveitis in Sierra Leone, West Africa. Br J Ophthalmol 1996;80:956-961.
54. Sugita M, Emomoto Y, Nakaura S, Ohba S, Yamamoto T, Ohno S: Epidemiological Study on Endogenous Uveitis in Japan. Recent Advances in Uveitis. Proc 3rd International Symposium on Uveitis, Brussels 1992, pp 161-163.
55. Kotake S, Furudate N, Sasamoto Y, Yoshikawa K, Goda C, Matsuda H: Characteristics of endogenous uveitis in Hokkaido, Japan. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1997;235:5-9.
56. Paivonsalo-Hietanen T, Tuominen J, Vaahtoranta-Lehtonen H, Saari KM: Incidence and prevalence of different uveitis entities in Finland. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1997;75:76-81.
57. Goel KM, Shanks RQA: Follow-up study of 100 cases of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1974;33:25-31.
58. Rosenberg AM, Oen KG: The relationship between ocular and articular disease activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and associated uveitis. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29:797-800.
59. Rauz S, Murray PI, Southwood RT: Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and uveitis: The classification conundrum. Eye 2000;14:817-820.
60. Rosenberg AM, Oen KG: The relationship between ocular and articular disease activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and associated uveitis. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29:797-800.
61. Chalom EC, Goldsmith DP, Koehler MA, Bittar B, Rose CD, Ostrov BE, Keenan GF: Prevalence and outcome of uveitis in a regional cohort of patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1997;24:2031-2034.
62. Kotaniemi K, Aho K, Kotaniemi A: Uveitis as a cause of visual loss in arthritides and comparable conditions. J Rheumatol 2001;28:309-312.
63. Key SN, Kymura SJ: Iridocyclitis associated with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Ophthalmol 1975;80:425-429.
64. Cassidy JT, Sullivan DB, Petty RE: Clinical patterns in chronic iridocyclitis in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1977;20:224-226.
65. Wolf MD, Lichter PR, Ragsdale CG: Prognostic factors in the uveitis of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Ophthalmology 1987;94:1242-1248.
66. WHO: Program for prevention of blindness and deafness. Global initiative for the elimination of blindness (WHO/PBL/97.61). Geneva, WHO, 1998, pp 1-2.
67. Tielsch JM, Sommer A, Witt K, Katz J, Royall R: Blindness and visual impairment in an American urban population. Arch Ophthalmol 1990;108:286-289.
68. Klaver CC, Wolfs RC, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, de Jong PT: Age-specific prevalence and causes of blindness and visual impairment in an older population: The Rotterdam Study. Arch Ophthalmol 1998;116:653-658.
69. Vingerling JR, Dielemans I, Hofman A, Grobbee DE, Hijmering M, et al: The prevalence of age-related maculopathy in the Rotterdam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1995;102:205-210.
70. Klein R, Klein BEK, Linton KLP: Prevalence of age-related maculopathy. The Bever Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1992;99:933-943.
71. Buch H, Vinding T, La Cour M, Nielsen NV: The prevalence and causes of bilateral and unilateral blindness in an elderly urban Danish population. The Copenhagen City Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2001;79:441-449.
72. Thompson JR, Du L, Rosenthal AR: Recent trends in registration of blindness and partial sight in Leicestershire. Br J Ophthalmol 1989;73:95-99.
73. Suttorp-Schulten MSA, Rothova A: The possible impact of uveitis in blindness: A literature survey. Br J Ophthalmol 1996;80:844-848.
74. Leibowitz HM, Krueger DE, Maunder LR, Milton RC, Kini MM, Kahn HA, Nickerson RJ, Pool J, Colton TL, Ganley JP, Loewenstein JI, Dawber TR: The Farmingham Eye Study Monograph: An ophthalmological and epidemiological study of cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration and visual acuity in a general population of 2,631 adults, 1973-1975. Surv Ophthalmol 1980;24(suppl):335-610.
75. Schaumburg IL: Vision problems in the US: Prevalence of adult vision impairment agerelated eye disease in America. Prevent Blindness in America, 2002.
76. Reidy A, Minassian DC, Vafidis G, Joseph J, Farrow S, Wu J, Desai P, Connolly A: Prevalence of serious eye disease and visual impairment in a north London population: Population-based, cross-sectional study. BMJ 1998;316:1643-1646.
77. Taylor HR, Keeffe JE: World blindness: A 21st century perspective. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:261-266.
78. Lim KH: Registration of new blindness in Singapore for 1985-1995. Singapore Med J 1998;39:104-106.
79. Thylefors B, Negrel AD, Pararajasegaram R, Dadzie KY: Global data on blindness. Bull WHO 1995;73:115-121.
80. Saaddine JB, Narayan KM, Vinicor F: Vision loss: A public health problem? Ophthalmology 2003;110:253-254.
81. Krumpaszky HG, Klauss V: Causes of blindness in Bavaria. Evaluation of a representative sample from blindness compensation records of Upper Bavaria. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1992;200.
82. Ten Doesschate J: Causes of blindness in the Netherlands. Doc Ophthalmol 1982;52:270-285.
83. Nussenblatt RB: The natural history of uveitis. Int Ophthalmol 1990;14:303-308.
84. Research to Prevent Blindness. Annual Report, New York 1993.
85. Rothova A, Buitenhuis HJ, Meenken C, Brinkman CJ, Linssen A, Alberts C, Luyendijk L, Kijlstra A: Uveitis and systemic disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1992;76:137-141.
86. Couto C, Merlo JC: Epidemiological Study of Patients with Uveitis in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Amsterdam, Kugler, 1993.
87. Durrani OM, Tehrani N, Marr J, Moradi P, Stavrou P, Murray PI: Vision loss in uveitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2002;30(suppl):A138.
88. Rauz S, Stavrou P, Murray PI: Evaluation of foldable intraocular lenses in patients with uveitis. Ophthalmology 2000;107:909-919.
89. Kumar V, Murray PI: Evaluation of Rayner injectable acrylic intraocular lenses in patients with uveitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2002;30(suppl):A139.
90. Soheilian M, Karimian F, Javadi MA, Sajjadi H, Ahmadieh H, Azarmina M, Valaee N, Rahmani B, Peyman GA: Surgical management of cataract and posterior chamber intraocular lens implantation in Fuchs' heterochromic iridocyclitis. Int Ophthalmol 1997;21:137-141.
91. Budak K, Akova YA, Yalvac I, Somer D, Aslan BS, Duman S: Cataract surgery in patients with Fuchs' heterochromic iridocyclitis. Jpn J Ophthalmol 1999;43:308-311.
92. O'Neill D, Murray PI, Patel BC, Hamilton AM: Extracapsular cataract surgery with and without intraocular lens implantation in Fuchs' heterochromic cyclitis. Ophthalmology 1995;102:1362-1368.
93. Muccioli C, Belfort R Jr: Cataract surgery in patients with uveitis. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2000;40:163-173.
94. Foster CS, Rashid S: Management of coincident cataract and uveitis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2003;14:1-6.
95. Bodaghi B, Cassoux N, Wechsler B, Hannouche D, Fardeau C, Papo T, Huong DL, Piette JC, LeHoang P: Chronic severe uveitis: Etiology and visual outcome in 927 patients from a single center. Medicine (Baltimore) 2001;80:263-270.
96. Massof RW, Rubin GS: Visual function assessment questionnaires. Surv Ophthalmol 2001;45:531-548.
97. Steinberg EP, Tielsch JM, Schein DO, Javitt JC, Sharkey P, Cassard P, Cassard SD, Legro MW, Diener-West M, Bass EB, Damiano AM: An index of functional impairment in patients with cataract. Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112:630-638.
98. Mangione CM, Lee PP, Gutierrez PR, Spritzer K, Berry S, Hays RD: Development of the 25-Item National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1050-1058.
99. Frost NA, Sparrow JM, Durant JS, Donovan JL, Peters TJ, Brookes ST: Development of a questionnaire for measurement of vision-related quality of life. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 1998;5:185-201.
100. Schiffman RM, Jacobsen G, Whitcup SM: Visual functioning and general health status in patients with uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:841-849.
101. Gardiner AM, Armstrong RA, Dunne MC, Murray PI: Correlation between visual function and visual ability in patients with uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2002;86:993-996.
102. Smith AF, Smith JG: The economic burden of global blindness: A price too high! Br J Ophthalmol 1996;80:276-277.
103. World Development Report: Workers in an Integrating World. New York, Oxford University Press, 1995.
104. Chiang YP, Bassi LJ, Javitt JC: Federal budgetary costs of blindness. Milbank Q 1992;70:310-320.
105. ONS: Social Trends 32. London, The Stationary Office, 2002.
106. ONS: Social Trends 30. London, The Stationary Office, 2000.
107. Registered Blind and Partially Sighted People: Year ending March 31, 2000. Department of Health, A/F 2000/7, 2000.
108. Meads C, Hyde C: What is the cost of blindness? Br J Ophthalmol 2003;87:1201-1204.
109. Javitt JC, Aiello LP, Chiang Y, Ferris FL 3rd, Canner JK, Greenfield S: Preventive eye care in people with diabetes is cost-saving to the federal government. Implications for healthcare reform. Diabetes Care 1994;17:909-917.
110. Wright SE, Keeffe JE, Thies LS: Direct costs of blindness in Australia. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2000;28:140-142.
111. Bunce C, Evans J, Fraser S, Wormald R: BD8 certification of visually impaired people. Br J Ophthalmol 1998;82:72-76.
112. Robinson R, Deutsch J, Jones HS, Youngson-Reilly S, Hamlin DM, Dhurjon L, Fielder AR: Unrecognised and unregistered visual impairment. Br J Ophthalmol 1994;78:736-740.
113. Bruce I, McKennel E: Blind and Partially Sighted Adults in Britain: The RNIB Survey. London, Royal National Institute for Blind, 1991.
114. McCluskey PJ, Towler HM, Lightman S: Management of chronic uveitis. BMJ 2000;320:555-558.
115. Murray PI: Maximising the Use of Systemic Anti-Inflammatory Agents. XI Congress of the European Society of Ophthalmology, Bologna 1997, pp 661-668.
116. Young S, Larkin G, Branley M, Lightman S: Safety and efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone for cystoid macular oedema in uveitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2001;29:2-6.
117. Miyamoto H, Ogura Y, Hashizoe M, Kunou N, Honda Y, Ikada Y: Biodegradable scleral implant for intravitreal controlled release of fluconazole. Curr Eye Res 1997;16:930-935.
118. Jaffe GJ, Yang CH, Guo H, Denny JP, Lima C, Ashton P: Safety and pharmacokinetics of an intraocular fluocinolone acetonide sustained delivery device. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:3569-3575.
119. Jaffe GJ, Ben-Nun J, Guo H, Dunn JP, Ashton P: Fluocinolone acetonide sustained drug delivery device to treat severe uveitis. Ophthalmology 2000;107:2024-2033.
120. Jabs DA, Rosenbaum JT, Foster CS, Holland GN, Jaffe GJ, Louie JS, Nussenblatt RB, Stiehm ER, Tessler H, Van Gelder RN, Whitcup SM, Yocum D: Guidelines for the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with ocular inflammatory disorders: Recommendations of an expert panel. Am J Ophthalmol 2000;130:492-513.
121. Nussenblatt RB, Palestine AG, Chan CC, Stevens G Jr, Mellow SD, Green SB: Randomized, double-masked study of cyclosporine compared to prednisolone in the treatment of endogenous uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1991;112:138-146.
122. De Vries J, Baarsma GS, Zaal MJ, Boen-Tan TN, Rothova A, Buitenhuis HJ, Schweitzer CM, de Keizer RJ, Kijlstra A: Cyclosporin in the treatment of severe chronic idiopathic uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 1990;74:344-349.
123. BenEzra D, Cohen E, Chajek T, Friedman G, Pizanti S, de Courten C, Harris W: Evaluation of conventional therapy versus cyclosporine A in Behçet's syndrome. Transplant Proc 1988;20:136-143.
124. Sloper CM, Powell RJ, Dua HS: Tacrolimus (FK506) in the treatment of posterior uveitis refractory to cyclosporine. Ophthalmology 1999;106:723-728.
125. Sakane T, Mochizuki M, Inaba G, Masuda K: A phase II study of FK506 (tacrolimus) on refractory uveitis associated with Behçet's disease and allied conditions (in Japanese). Ryumachi 1995;35:802-813.
126. Mochizuki M, Masuda K, Sakane T, Ito K, Kogure M, Sugino N, Usui M, Mizushima Y, Ohno S, Inaba G, et al: A clinical trial of FK506 in refractory uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1993;115:763-769.
127. Ishioka M, Ohno S, Nakamura S, Isobe K, Watanabe N, Ishigatsubo Y, Tanaka S: FK506 treatment of noninfectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;118:723-729.
128. Nussenblatt RB: Uveitis in Behçet's disease. Int Rev Immunol 1997;14:67-79.
129. Rosenbaum JT: Treatment of severe refractory uveitis with intravenous cyclophosphamide. J Rheumatol 1994;21:123-125.
130. Goldstein DA, Fontanilla FA, Kaul S, Sahin O, Tessler HH: Long-term follow-up of patients treated with short-term high-dose chlorambucil for sight-threatening ocular inflammation. Ophthalmology 2002;109:370-377.
131. Mudun BA, Ergen A, Ipcioglu SU, Burumcek EY, Durlu Y, Arslan MO: Short-term chlorambucil for refractory uveitis in Behçet's disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2001;9:219-229.
132. Tricoulis D: Treatment of Behçet's disease with chlorambucil. Br J Ophthalmol 1976;60:55-57.
133. Flores M, Gudino Perez R, Rios Prado R, Almedia Arvizu VM, Castrejon Vazquez MI, Ocampo AA: Comparative study of the treatment of autoimmune uveitis with prednisone and with cyclophosphamide and azathioprine (in Spanish). Rev Alerg Méx 2001;48:75-79.
134. Ozyazgan Y, Yurdakul S, Yazici H, Tuzun B, Iscimen A, Tuzun Y, Aktunc T, Pazarli H, Hamuryudan V, Muftuoglu A: Low dose cyclosporin A versus pulsed cyclophosphamide in Behçet's syndrome: A single masked trial. Br J Ophthalmol 1992;76:241-243.
135. Hamza M, Meddeb S, Mili I, Ouertani A: Bolus of cyclophosphamide and methylprednisolone in uveitis in Behçet's disease. Preliminary results with the use of new criteria of evaluation (in French). Ann Med Interne (Paris) 1992;143:438-441.
136. Cuchacovich M, Verdaguer JI, Gatica H, Lopez JM, Verdaguer J: Treatment of ocular inflammatory disease with glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide pulses (in Spanish). Rev Méd Chil 1995;123:865-873.
137. Miserocchi E, Baltatzis S, Ekong A, Roque M, Foster CS: Efficacy and safety of chlorambucil in intractable noninfectious uveitis: The Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary Experience. Ophthalmology 2002;109:137-142.
138. Yazici H, Pazarli H, Barnes CG, Tuzun Y, Ozyazgan Y, Silman A, Serdaroglu S, Oguz V, Yurdakul S, Lovatt GE, et al: A controlled trial of azathioprine in Behçet's syndrome. N Engl J Med 1990;322:281-285.
139. Pascalis L, Pia G, Aresu G, Frongia T, Barca L: Combined cyclosporin A-steroid-MTX treatment in endogenous non-infectious uveitis. J Autoimmun 1993;6:467-480.
140. Reiff A, Takei S, Sadeghi S, Stout A, Shaham B, Bernstein B, Gallagher K, Stout T: Etanercept therapy in children with treatment-resistant uveitis. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44:1411-1415.
141. Shetty AK, Zganjar BE, Ellis GS Jr, Ludwig IH, Gedalia A: Low-dose methotrexate in the treatment of severe juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and sarcoid iritis. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1999;36:125-128.
142. Samson CM, Waheed N, Baltatzis S, Foster CS: Methotrexate therapy for chronic noninfectious uveitis: Analysis of a case series of 160 patients. Ophthalmology 2001;108:1134-1139.
143. Kilmartin DJ, Forrester JV, Dick AD: Rescue therapy with mycophenolate mofetil in refractory uveitis. Lancet 1998;352:35-36.
144. Larkin G, Lightman S: Mycophenolate mofetil. A useful immunosuppressive in inflammatory eye disease. Ophthalmology 1999;106:370-374.
145. Santos Lacomba M, Marcos Martin C, Gallardo Galera JM, Gomez Vidal MA, Collantes Estevez E, Ramirez Chamond R, Omar M: Aqueous humor and serum tumor necrosis factor-α in clinical uveitis. Ophthalmic Res 2001;33:251-255.
146. Aggarwal BB, Natarajan K: Tumor necrosis factors: Developments during the last decade. Eur Cytokine Netw 1996;7:93-124.
147. Maini R, St Clair EW, Breedveld F, Furst D, Kalden J, Weisman M, Smolen J, Emery P, Harriman G, Feldmann M, Lipsky P: Infliximab (chimeric anti-tumour necrosis factor-α monoclonal antibody) versus placebo in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving concomitant methotrexate: A randomised phase III trial. ATTRACT Study Group. Lancet 1999;354:1932-1939.
148. Targan SR, Hanauer SB, van Deventer SJ, Mayer L, Present DH, Braakman T, DeWoody KL, Schaible TF, Rutgeerts PJ: A short-term study of chimeric monoclonal antibody cA2 to tumor necrosis factor-α for Crohn's disease. Crohn's Disease cA2 Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1029-1035.
149. Bartolucci P, Ramanoelina J, Cohen P, Mahr A, Godmer P, Le Hello C, Guillevin L: Efficacy of the anti-TNF-α antibody infliximab against refractory systemic vasculitides: An open pilot study on 10 patients. Rheumatology (Oxf) 2002;41:1126-1132.
150. Seider N, Beiran I, Scharf J, Miller B: Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for resistant ocular Behçet's disease. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:1287-1288.
151. Sfikakis PP, Theodossiadis PG, Katsiari CG, Kaklamanis P, Markomichelakis NN: Effect of infliximab on sight-threatening panuveitis in Behçet's disease. Lancet 2001;358:295-296.
152. El-Shabrawi YG, Hermann J: Anti-tumor necrosis factor-α therapy with infliximab as an alternative to corticosteroids in the treatment of human leukocyte antigen B27-associated acute anterior uveitis. Ophthalmology 2002;109:2342-2346.
153. Smith JR, Levinson RD, Holland GN, Jabs DA, Robinson MR, Whitcup SM, Rosenbaum JT: Differential efficacy of tumor necrosis factor inhibition in the management of inflammatory eye disease and associated rheumatic disease. Arthritis Rheum 2001;45:252-257.
154. Jobanputra P, Barton P, Bryan S, Burls A: The effectiveness of infliximab and etanercept for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2002;6:1-110.
155. Flamm SL: Chronic hepatitis C virus infection. JAMA 2003;289:2413-2417.
156. Georgiou S, Monastirli A, Pasmatzi E, Gartaganis S, Goerz G, Tsambaos D: Efficacy and safety of systemic recombinant interferon-α in Behçet's disease. J Intern Med 1998;243:367-372.
157. Bonifazi F, de Vivo A, Rosti G, Guilhot F, Guilhot J, Trabacchi E, Hehlmann R, Hochhaus A, Shepherd PC, Steegmann JL, Kluin-Nelemans HC, Thaler J, Simonsson B, Louwagie A, Reiffers J, Mahon FX, Montefusco E, Alimena G, Hasford J, Richards S, Saglio G, Testoni N, Martinelli G, Tura S, Baccarani M: Chronic myeloid leukemia and interferon-α: A study of complete cytogenetic responders. Blood 2001;98:3074-3081.
158. Boyvat A, Sisman-Solak C, Gurler A: Long-term effects of interferon-α2a treatment in Behçet's disease. Dermatology 2000;201:40-43.
159. Kotter I, Zierhut M, Eckstein AK, Vonthein R, Ness T, Gunaydin I, Grimbacher B, Blaschke S, Meyer-Riemann W, Peter HH, Stubiger N: Human recombinant interferon-α2a for the treatment of Behçet's disease with sight-threatening posterior or panuveitis. Br J Ophthalmol 2003;87:423-431.
160. Kotter I, Eckstein AK, Stubiger N, Zierhut M: Treatment of ocular symptoms of Behçet's disease with interferon-α2a: A pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol 1998;82:488-494.
161. Sanchez Roman J, Castillo Palma MJ, Torronteras Santiago R, Nunez Roldan A: Absence of relationship between Behçet's disease and hepatitis B and C virus infection (in Spanish). Med Clin (Barc) 1996;106:196.
162. Alpsoy E, Durusoy C, Yilmaz E, Ozgurel Y, Ermis O, Yazar S, Basaran E: Interferon-α2a in the treatment of Behçet's disease: A randomized placebo-controlled and double-blind study. Arch Dermatol 2002;138:467-471.
163. Demiroglu H, Ozcebe OI, Barista I, Dundar S, Eldem B: Interferon-α2b, colchicine, and benzathine penicillin versus colchicine and benzathine penicillin in Behçet's disease: A randomised trial. Lancet 2000;355:605-609.
164. Nussenblatt RB, Capsi RR, Mahdi R, Chan CC, Roberge F, Lider O, Weiner HL: Inhibition of S-antigen induced experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis by induction of tolerance with S-antigen. J Immunol 1990;144:1689-1695.
165. Dick AD, Cheng YF, Liversidge J, Forrester JV: Intranasal administration of retina antigens suppresses retinal antigen-induced experimental autoimmune uveitis. Immunology 1994;82:625-631.
166. Nussenblatt RB, Gery I, Weiner HL, Ferris FL, Shiloach J, Remaley N, Perry C, Caspi RR, Hafler DA, Foster CS, Whitcup SM: Treatment of uveitis by oral administration of retinal antigens: Results of a phase I/II randomized masked trial. Am J Ophthalmol 1997;123:583-592.
167. Nussenblatt RB: Proctor Lecture. Experimental autoimmune uveitis: Mechanisms of disease and clinical therapeutic indications. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1991;32:3131-3141.
168. Caspi RR, Roberge FG, McAllister CG, el-Saied M, Kuwabara T, Gery I, Hanna E, Nussenblatt RB: T-cell lines mediating experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis in the rat. J Immunol 1986;136:928-933.
169. Feron EJ, Calder VL, Lightman SL: Distribution of IL-2R and CD45Ro expression on CD4+ and CD8+ T-lymphocytes in the peripheral blood of patients with posterior uveitis. Curr Eye Res 1992;11:167-172.
170. Nussenblatt RB, Fortin E, Schiffman R, Rizzo L, Smith J, Van Veldhuisen P, Sran P, Yaffe A, Goldman CK, Waldmann TA, Whitcup SM: Treatment of noninfectious intermediate and posterior uveitis with the humanized anti-Tac mAb: A phase I/II clinical trial. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:7462-7466.
171. Papaliodis GN, Chu D, Foster CS: Treatment of ocular inflammatory disorders with daclizumab. Ophthalmology 2003;110:786-789.
172. Nussenblatt RB, Thompson DJ, Li Z, Peterson JS, Robinson RR, Shames RS, Nagarajan S, Tang MT, Mailman M, Velez G, Roy C, Levy-Clarke GA, Suhler EB, Djalilian A, Sen HN, Al-Khatib S, Ursea R, Srivastava S, Bamji A, Mellow S, Sran P, Waldmann TA, Buggage RR: Humanized anti-interleukin-2 receptor α therapy: Long-term results in uveitis patients and preliminary safety and activity data for establishing parameters for subcutaneous administration. J Autoimmun 2003;21:283-293.
173. Dick AD, Meyer P, James T, Forrester JV, Hale G, Waldmann H, Isaacs JD: Campath-1H therapy in refractory ocular inflammatory disease. Br J Ophthalmol 2000;84:107-109.
174. Isaacs JD, Hale G, Waldmann H, Dick AD, Haynes R, Forrester JV, Watson P, Meyer PA: Monoclonal antibody therapy of chronic intraocular inflammation using Campath-1H. Br J Ophthalmol 1995;79:1054-1055.
175. Mercanti A, Parolini B, Bonora A, Lequaglie Q, Tomazzoli L: Epidemiology of endogenous uveitis in north-eastern Italy. Analysis of 655 new cases. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2001;79:64-68.
176. Foulds WS, McCuish A, Barrie T, Green F, Scobie IN, Ghafour IM, McClure E, Barber JH: Diabetic retinopathy in the West of Scotland: Its detection and prevalence, and the cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening programme. Health Bull (Edinb) 1983;41:318-326.
177. Dasbach EJ, Fryback DG, Newcomb PA, Klein R, Klein BE: Cost-effectiveness of strategies for detecting diabetic retinopathy. Med Care 1991;29:20-39.