Sikh militant movements in Canada

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 79-93

  Razavy, Maryam ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

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EID: 32144459804     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550500174913     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. The author thanks Stephen A. Kent for numerous revisions and helpful feedback. She also thanks the editor and anonymous referee for valuable comments and suggestions.
2. For the purpose of this study, I use the Oxford English Dictionary's definition of "militant." According to this definition, a militant is one who is "aggressively active in pursuing a political or social cause . . . often favouring extreme, violent, or confrontational methods" (Oxford English Dictionary, Online ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), http://dictionary.oed.com/).
3. Alternately, I utilize the term "terrorism" in accordance with Bruce Hoffman, who defines it as "the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change" (Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism [New York: Columbia University Press, 1998], 43). While all the groups that I describe within this study are in some capacity associated with militancy, I am hesitant to label them all as synonymously terrorist. Still, some actions (such as the 1985 bombing of an Air India flight) are clearly acts of terrorism, and I have employed the term in such instances.
4. Narindar Singh, Canadian Sikhs: History, Religion, and Culture of Sikhs in North America (Ottawa, ON: Canadian Sikhs' Studies Institute, 1994).
5. In 1973, the Sikh political party, the Akali Dal, in reference to what it felt were exploitative actions on the part of the central government, brought forth demands for the transference of greater power and autonomy for state authorities. These demands included the transference of central power to state power in the areas of defense, foreign affairs, communications, currency, and railroads. In addition to the aforementioned issues, political activists in the Punjab accused the national Indian government of numerous abuses against Sikhs. According to Harjot Oberoi, among their allegations were that "Sikhs were not allowed to freely practice their religion, the sanctity of their holy places had been often violated, Akali [Sikh-based] governments in the Punjab were never allowed to last for the period of their constitutional term, and Sikhs were being economically discriminated against by the federal government, particularly in the areas of employment and budget allocations." Harjot Oberoi, "Sikh Fundamentalism: Translating History into Theory," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 261.
6. In addition to the aforementioned grievances, many Sikhs were also infuriated with the Indian government's refusal to acknowledge Sikhism as a separate religious entity. One particular section of the Indian constitution has long aggravated many Sikhs fighting for group identity. Article 25 (b) of the Indian constitution catalogues Sikhism with Hinduism: "The reference to Hindus should be construed as including a reference to person's [sic] professing the Sikh, Jaina, or Buddhist religion . . ." quoted in Raymond Brady Williams, Religions of Immigrants from India and Pakistan: New Threads in the American Tapestry (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1988), 77.
7. The 1960s "Green Revolution," saw the transformation of Punjab's substance farming into an agricultural industry. The move towards a more industrialized modus operandi resulted in a sudden influx of monies into the Punjab, making it one of India's most lucrative provinces. This sudden influx of wealth, however, and the class divisions that the revolution caused had far reaching consequences, both socially and politically. For an in-depth explanation of the Punjab's "Green Revolution" and its ensuing effects, particularly with respect to its social consequences, see Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India Since Independence (New Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
8. http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/demo30a.htm.
9. Salim Jiwa, The Death of Air India Flight 182 (London: W.H. Allen, 1986), http://www.flight182.com/part33.htm.
10. "Assented to" Acts Service, Department of the Solicitor General of Canada, http://www.parl.gc.ca/36/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/secu-e/rep- e/repsecintjan99-e.htm.
11. Harbans Singh, ed., "Ghadr Movement," The Encyclopedia of Sikhism (Patiala: Punjabi University Press, 1996), 63.
12. I have chosen to use the term "terrorist" here as opposed to militant. Terrorist movements are characterized by their calculated attack on civilians; see David C. Rapoport, "Comparing Militant Fundamentalist Movements and Groups," in Marty and Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State.
13. Yonah Alexander demonstrates this significant feature of terrorism, stating that terrorism uses violence "against random civilian targets in order to intimidate or to create generalized pervasive fear for the purpose of achieving political goals," Yonah Alexander, International Terrorism: National, Regional and Global Perspectives (New York: Praeger, 1976).
14. This definition depicts the Ghadar situation particularly well, as the movement was characterized by its attacks on random civilians, as well as its use of (or the threat of use of) violence in the conveyance of a particular message. For a further discussion of target groups and the use of violence in terrorist activities, see Paul Wilkinson, Political Terrorism (Essex: The Anchor Press Ltd., 1974) 9-32
15. and Thomas P. Thornton, "Terror as a Weapon of Political Agitation," in Harry Eckstein, ed., Internal War (New York: Free Press, 1964).
16. Estimates indicate that roughly 8,000 Ghadarites (members of the Ghadar movement) had returned to India by 1916 to aid in terrorist activities, http://www.panjab.org.uk/english/histGPty.html.
17. For a more detailed account on the Ghadar movement see Mark Jurgensmeyer, "The Ghadar Syndrome: Ethnic Anger and Nationalist Pride," Population Review 25 (1981): 48-58.
18. Mark Jurgensmeyer, Population Review, Ibid, 53.
19. should mention, however, that while the early Ghadar movement was primarily secular with respect to its end, it nonetheless did incorporate minimal traces of religious belief. Juergensmeyer, "Ghadar Syndrome," 53, suggests that the Ghadar movement possesses a "strikingly religious strand" and that the "overwhelming numbers of supporters of the movement were Sikh, and their militant religious history also became a part of the Ghadar movement." As is typical with discussion of this sort, the lines of ethnicity, nationalism, and religiosity are too fine to make sharp distinctions among them. Indeed, issues of nationalism and ethnicity still are significant within the discourse of today's militant groups. I use the Ghadar example here simply to illustrate the historical presence and execution of Sikh groups' mobilization.
20. Patwant Singh, The Sikhs (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 180.
21. Darshan Singh Tatla, The Sikh Diaspora: The Search for Statehood (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1999).
22. Jiwa, Air India Flight 92.
23. http://www.worldsikh.org/wso/introduction/constitution/default.htm.
24. Jiwa, Air India Flight 92.
25. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora, 118.
26. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora, 118, Ibid.
27. Palbinder Kaur, "Paying the Price in the Fight Against Terrorism," http://www.sikhe.com/gsdno/articles/oped/ 11232001palbinderkaurpayingtheprice.htm2001sikhe.com. In the early 1980s Baljit Dhillon was prohibited from wearing a turban due to a mandate within the RCMP that officers were prohibited from wearing any religious symbols as part of their uniform. In 1990, however, the federal government of Canada removed the ban, thus permitting Sikhs to wear the turban as a part of the traditional RCMP attire.
28. Kim Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs to 'get your weapons ready,' court told - Former Priest says suspects called for a full-fledged war against India," Vancouver Sun, 12 Dec. 2003. Comments made by the WSO in reference to the Air India trial and its perpetrators are quite ambiguous. To date, I have not come across any source that provides a more articulate mandate for the WSO regarding the trial and the accused. The WSO's refusal, however, to provide a detailed, open, and lucid response to the case may be an intentional strategy by the group to circumvent any communal conflict.
29. Kim Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs to 'get your weapons ready,' court told - Former Priest says suspects called for a full-fledged war against India," Vancouver Sun, 2003, Ibid.
30. Kim Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs to 'get your weapons ready,' court told - Former Priest says suspects called for a full-fledged war against India," Vancouver Sun, 2003, Ibid.
31. Inderjit Singh Reyat, for example, admitted to assisting in the building of explosive devices during his testimony at the Air India trial. Having just completed a ten-year manslaughter sentence for his role in the 1985 explosion at Tokyo's Narita airport, Reyat is now serving a five-year manslaughter sentence for his role in the Air India bombing.
32. Cynthia Kepply Mahmood, Fighting for Faith and Nation: Dialogues with Sikh Militants, Series in Contemporary Ethnography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 157.
33. In an effort to purge Sikh militants hiding within the confines of the Golden Temple Complex (Sikhism's holiest site), the Indian government stormed the temple in an operation code-named Blue Star. Thousands of people were killed in the massacre.
34. http://www.sikhlionz.com/isyfban.htm. 2003.
35. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 157.
36. "Assented to" Acts Service.
37. International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF), "Terrorist Outfit, Punjab," South Asia Intelligence Review, http://www.satp.org/tracking/Goto. asp?ID = 80.
38. "Assented to" Acts Service.
39. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 158.
40. "Assented to" Acts Service.
41. Unfortunately, my informant on these matters has personal safety concerns, so he insisted on anonymity and confidentiality. From him I learned about interactions among various fundamentalist Sikh factions at a gurdwara in British Columbia but I cannot give details for fear of exposing my informant. I do hope, however, that the inclusion of this material, brief as it may be, will open up future dialogue in the area.
42. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora, 119.
43. International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF), "Terrorist Outfit."
44. "Terrorist Outfit.", Ibid.
45. http://dspace.dial.pipex.com.town/square/ev90495/index.htm
46. International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF), "Terrorist Outfit."
47. Chandan Nandy, "Lashkar to Train Khalistan Militants at ISI's Behest," The Hindustan Times, http://www.meadev.nic.in/news/clippings/ 20020409/ht1.htm;
48. "Intellectuals Question Jathedar's Power to Ex-Communicate," The Sikh Times, http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_071603b.html;
49. John Pike, FAS Intelligence Resource Program, http://www.fas.org/irp/ world/pakistan/isi/index.html.
50. Although co-operation between the ISI and pro-Khalistani groups was at its height during the late 1980s and early 1990s, it still continues to some degree today. Within the past five years, investigators have uncovered a minimum of five tunnels crossing the international border, supposedly for the purpose of facilitating infiltration. Evidence also has surfaced recently suggesting Pakistan's involvement with the recruitment and training of Pakistani Muslims for the purpose of collaboration with existing Sikh militant groups within Pakistan as well as training Sikh youth at large, privately owned farmhouses in Muscat, Thailand, Dubai, and Iran. K. P. S. Gill, "Khalistan in Waiting," The Sikh Times, http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_022104a.html.
51. International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF), "Terrorist Outfit."
52. Jiwa, Air India Flight 92. In large part, Pakistani militants support the Khalistani endeavour, as a means to de-stabilize India.
53. "Assented to" Acts Service.
54. On April 13, 1978, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his followers attempted to halt a convention on grounds of apostasy that the Nirankaris were holding in the Sikh holy city of Amritsar. (Many Sikhs felt that the Nirankari sect - whose belief in a living guru, canonical additions to the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book), and relaxed dress code - was a heretical sect, and a detriment to inner Sikh piety.) In their attempt at stopping the controversial group, Bhindranwale and his followers marched into the Golden Temple and a vicious, armed confrontation ensued, resulting in numerous deaths.
55. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora.
56. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 156.
57. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 156. Ibid.
58. Parmar was held in German prison in 1983 on an Interpol warrant awaiting extradition proceedings for the alleged murder of several individuals in India, as well as suspected assassination plots on then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi. Indian authorities were unable to prove any of the charges and Parmar was subsequently freed. Jiwa, Air India Flight 92.
59. Canada's CBC network, however, reported evidence that Parmar had in fact been in police custody at the time of his death. "Canadian Police Charge Suspects in Air India Bombing," http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id= 511.
60. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora, 121.
61. Martyrdom is a very important and integral aspect of the Sikh faith. Traditionally, Sikh martyrs have been individuals who have laid down their lives as a result of their religious convictions. The most famous of Sikh martyrs, or the martyr par excellence, is the fifth Guru, Arjan, who endured five days of unrelenting torture (before being thrown into the river Ravi) for refusing to renounce his faith before his Muslim persecutors. The unusual manner of Parmar's death (many continue to believe that his death at the hands of Indian police was a direct result of his religious convictions), together with his compelling role as a religious leader while alive, seems to fit the definitional framework of Sikh martyrdom. I, however, do not intend to enter into the controversy that surrounds the attachment of the term "martyr" to Bhindranwale. While I personally have heard members of the Sikh community refer to him as one, I also have witnessed the anger felt by members of the community with the connection of the term "martyr" to Bhindranwale. These members feel a certain sense of disgrace associating the life, religious purity, and subsequent martyrdom of many Sikh martyrs of the ranks of Guru Arjan with that of Bhindranwale, whom they view as corrupt. For a more detailed analysis of the Sikh martyrdom tradition, see Louise E. Fenech, Martyrdom in the Sikh Tradition: Playing the Game of Love (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000).
62. Bolan, "Bagri Urged Sikhs."
63. Bagri, quoted in Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs."
64. Singh, quoted in Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs."
65. Jiwa, Air India Flight 92.
66. "Charities," Canada Customs and Revenue Agency, http://www.ccra-adrc.gc.ca/tax/charities/menu-e.html.
67. "Charities in the International Context," Canada Revenue Agency, http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/tax/charities/international-e.html.
68. Canada, House of Commons Question and Answer Period, 5 June 1995 (Ms. ValMeredith, MP; the Honourable David Anderson, Minister of National Revenue).
69. Canada, House of Commons Question and Answer Period, 4 May 1995 (Ms. ValMeredith, MP; the Honourable David Anderson, Minister of National Revenue).
70. Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs."
71. Bolan, "Bagri urged Sikhs.", Ibid.
72. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 157.
73. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, Ibid., 152.
74. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 152, Ibid.
75. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, Ibid., 158.
76. Inderjit Singh Jaijee, The Politics of Genocide (Punjab: Ajanta Publications, 1999);
77. "The Current Struggle (1984-Present)," http:/www.panthkhalsa. org/raj/rajkhalsa.php.
78. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, 158.
79. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith, Ibid., 158-159.
80. Amrik Sandhu [pseud.] (an official in the Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara, Surrey), in discussion with the author, July, 2004.
81. Gill, "Khalistan in Waiting."