Globalization and migration: Post-colonial Dutch antillean and Aruban immigrant political incorporation in the Netherlands

Dialectical Anthropology

Volumn 29, Issue 3-4, 2005, Pages 291-314

  Sharpe, Michael ^a  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Globalization and migration: migration and the Netherlands; Post colonial citizenship and political incorporation; Post colonial Dutch Caribbean; Transnationalism

Indexed keywords

EID: 32044461987     PISSN: 03044092     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10624-005-3477-3     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. "Dutch Caribbean" refers to the Dutch "overseas countries" of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba and the former Dutch territory of Suriname. The 1954 Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands granted Suriname and the Dutch Antilles, of which Aruba was then a part, the status of equal, integral, and autonomous parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands with one Dutch nationality. Suriname became independent of the Kingdom in 1975 and Aruba was granted "status aparte" from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. Defense and foreign affairs remain the responsibility of the Kingdom. It should be noted that "Suriname" is also sometimes spelled "Surinam." I will use the "Suriname" spelling as this is what is used on Surinamese government websites.
2. Political incorporation is defined here as both the formal (citizenship, naturalization, and voting) and informal (membership in nongovernmental and community organizations and associations, etc.), means of participation in a given location, and the extent to which immigrants interests are reflected in political outcomes and policies. In Michael Jones-Correa, "Bringing Outsiders In: Questions of Immigrant Incorporation", 3. Paper prepared for the Conference on the Politics of Democratic Inclusion, University of Notre Dame, (October 17-19, 2002).
3. Meindert Fennema and Jean Tillie, "Civic Community, Political Participation and Political Trust of Ethnic Groups," in Connections 24(1) (2000):26-41.
4. For Guarnizo, "participation in more than one nation-state is a chief characteristic of contemporary transnational practices." He argues that increasing economic and political global interdependence has made it now possible for contemporary immigrants, "to be incorporated formally and simultaneously "here" and "there" through privileges opened up by dual citizenship, and the reach....of government programs, political parties, and candidates for office from their countries of origin." in Luis E. Guarnizo, "On the Political Participation of Transnational Migrants: Old Practices and New Trends," in Gary Gerstle and John Mollenkopf eds. E Pluribus Umim?: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives on Immigrant Political Incorporation (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2001), 214-215.
5. Dogan and Pelassy define political culture as "the set of political beliefs, feelings, and values that prevail in a nation at a given time." They claim that political culture is important "because it filters perceptions, determines attitudes, and influences modalities of participation." Mattei Dogan and Dominique Pelassy (2nd edition) How to Compare Nations: Strategies in Comparative Politics (Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc., 1990), 68.
6. Although Dutch colonies in the 1600's, there existed limited contact between the Netherlands and the Dutch Caribbean until the 20th century. In 2002, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands made an unprecedented expression of deep regret and sorrow for the Antillean and Surinamese victims of the transatlantic slave trade with her commemoration of a national slavery monument in Oosterpark, Amsterdam. Most likely because of a fear of civil unrest, only a select few people were allowed entry prompting Antillean and Surinamese bystanders to demand, "Wij willen naar binnen!" or "We want in!" This incident illustrates the Netherlands historically distant relationship with the Dutch Caribbean. From "Dit is Onze Bevrijdingsdag", in Algemeen Dagblad (Caribische Editie). Willemstad, Curacao. (July 2, 2002), 5.
7. Rogers Brubaker Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 21.
8. T. H. Marshall Citizenship and Social Class (London, Concord, Massachusetts: Pluto Press, 1992), 45.
9. Stephen Castles and Alastair Davidson Citizenship and Migration: Globalization and the Politics of Belonging (New York: Routledge.Castles and Davidson, 2000), 55.
10. Grosfoguel cites the term "modern colonies" from Gérard Pierre-Charles to describe localities, i.e., Puerto Rico, Martinique and Guadeloupe, Dutch Antilles and Aruba. Gérard Pierre-Charles El Carihe contemporáneo (Mexico D. F.: Siglio XXI, 1979).
11. For Grosfoguel, "modern colonies" are neither "classical colonies" nor "nation-states" but a "form of neocolonialism without a fully independent state or a form of colonialism with access to certain state benefits and rights of the metropolitan populations." Ramón Grosfoguel Colonial Subjects: Puerto Ricans in a Global Perspective (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2003) 178, 180.
12. Castles and Davidson, Citizenship and Migration, viii.
13. Although this can easily be said about all Dutch Caribbean immigrant groups, Van Niekerk specifically writes about the immigrant Surinamese in Mies Van Niekerk Premigration Legacies and Immigrant Social Mobility: The Afro-Surinamese and Indo-Surinamese in the Netherlands (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 2000, Translation: Lexington Books, 2002).
14. Fennema and Tillie, "Civic Community," 26-41.
15. Mark J. Miller, "Political Participation and Representation of Noncitizens," in William Rogers Brubaker ed. Immigration and Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America (Lanham: University Press of America. 1989), 132.
16. Angelo Falcon in Jorge Heine ed. Time for Decision: The United States and Puerto Rico (Lanham, MD: The North-South Publishing Co, 1983).
17. John Crowley, "The Theory and Practice of Immigration and "Race-Relations" Policy: Some Thoughts on British and French Experience," in Naomi Carmon ed. Immigration and Integration in Post-Industrial Societies: Theoretical Analysis and Policy-Related Research (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 8.
18. Frantz Fanon The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1968);
19. Albert Memmi The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965).
20. Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou, "The New Second Generation. Segmented Assimilation and Its variants Among Post-1965 Immigrant Youth," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530, 1993, 74-98;
21. Herbert Gans, "Second Generation Decline: Scenarios for the Economic and Ethnic Futures of the post-1965 American Immigrants," in Ethnic and Racial Studies 15:2 (1992):173-193.
22. "Straight line" assimilation or acculturation describes a situation in which each generation incrementally raises its status and upward mobility and parallel integration into the white middle class that characterized much of the European migration to the US of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Robert Ezra Park, "Human Migration and the Marginal Man," American Journal of Sociology 33(6), (1928): 881893.;
23. Lloyd W. Warner and Leo Srole The Social Systems of American Ethnic Groups (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1945).
24. Lucassen and Penninx argue that all immigrant groups are eventually integrated in Dutch society. J. Lucassen and R. Penninx Newcomers. Immigrants and their Descendants in the Netherlands, 1550-1995 (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1997).
25. Brubaker, Immigration and Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America;
26. and Rogers Brubaker Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992);
27. Yasemin Nohoglu Soysal Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994);
28. Alejandro Portes and Ruben G. Rumbaut Immigrant America: A Portrait (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
29. Rainer Bauböck Transnational Citizenship: Membership and Rights in International Migration (Cheltenham, UK, Northhamptpton MA: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 1994);
30. Yasemin Nohoglu Soysal. Limits of Citizenship;
31. Nina Glick Schiller, and Linda Basch and Cristina Blanc-Szanton. Towards a Transnational Perspective on Migration: Race, Class, and Nationalism Reconsidered. (New York: The New York Academy of Sciences, 1992);
32. Michael Peter Smith and Luis Eduardo Guarnizo eds. Transnationalism From Below (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1998).
33. In 1986, Aruba obtained "status aparte" making Aruba an integral self-governing part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands but independent of the administrative centralism of Curacao and the Netherlands Antilles. Although Aruba was scheduled to become fully independent in 1996, a referendum held in that year mandated that it remain an integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
34. Hans Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis. Antilleans, especially Curacaoans, in the Netherlands," in Hans Vermeulen and Rinus Penninx eds. Immigrant Integration: The Dutch Case (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 2000), 93.
35. Ingrid Koulen and Gert Oostindie The Netherlands Antilles and Aruba: A Research Guide (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris Publications Holland, 1987), 15-16.
36. R. Baker ed. Public Administration in Small and Island States (USA: Kumarian Press, 1992), 136.
37. Population figures for Surinamese, Turks, Moroccans, and Antilleans from chapters in the same book (Surinamese) Mies Van Niekerk. "Paradoxes in Paradise: Integration and Social Mobility of the Surinamese in the Netherlands," 69; (Turks and Moroccans) "Introduction," 9; and (Antilleans) Hans Van Hulst "A Continuing Construction of Crisis: Antilleans, especially Curacaoans, in the Netherlands,", 94 in Hans Vermeulen, and Rinus Penninx eds. Immigrant Integration: The Dutch Case (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 2000).
38. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 94.
39. Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers Decolonising the Caribbean: Dutch Policies in a Comparative Perspective (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003), 179.
40. Van Niekerk, "Paradoxes in Paradise," 69.
41. Ibid.
42. Soysal, Limits of Citizenship, 48-50;
43. The Netherlands has a participatory and consultative structure for recognized minorities. In Vermeiden and Penninx, Immigrant Integration, 23.
44. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).
45. Fennema and Tillie, "Civic Community," 30.
46. Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Y. Nanetti Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
47. Fennema and Tillie, "Civic Community," 33.
48. Ibid. Fennema and Tillie note this as calculated from Fennema and Tillie (1999) indicated in the "References" Section of Fennema and Tillie (2000) as Meindert Fennema and Jean Tillie, "political participation and political trust in Amsterdam. Civic communities and Ethnic networks," in Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 25(4); 703-726.
49. Jean Tillie and Boris Slijper. "Immigrant Political Integration and Ethnic Civic Communities in Amsterdam," 7. Paper Presented at the Conference on "Identities, Affiliations, and Allegiances", Yale University, (October 2-3, 2003).
50. The authors note that due to data collection limitations they could not distinguish between Surinamese and Antilleans. Same data were published without "overall turnout" in Jean Tillie "Social Capital of Organisations and Their Members: Explaining the Political Integration of Immigrants in Amsterdam," in Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 30:3 (2004): 534.
51. Jean Tillie. "Explaining Migrant Voting Behaviour in the Netherlands: Combining the Electoral Research and Ethnic Studies Perspective," Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationale. 14 (2) (1998): 71-95.
52. Fennema and Tillie. "Civic Community," 37.
53. Ibid.
54. Miller, "Political Participation," in Brubaker, 1989, 133.
55. Baker, Public Administration, 2, 13, 136.
56. Allison Blakely Blacks in the Dutch World (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 2.
57. Johannes Menne Postma The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Track, 1600-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 299, 302.
58. Blakely, Blacks in the Dutch World, 30.
59. Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers Decolonizing the Caribbean: Dutch Policies in a Comparative Perspective (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003), 59.
60. Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers Decolonizing the Caribbean: Dutch Policies in a Comparative Perspective, Ibid., 29-33.
61. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 96.
62. Baker, Public Administration, 24.
63. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 99.
64. V. Green Migrants in Aruba: Interethnic Integration (Assen, The Netherlands: Koninklijke van Gorcum & Comp. B.V., 1973), 24.
65. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, 57.
66. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, Ibid., 61.
67. Ibid.
68. Floris Freek Vermeulen The Immigrant Organising Process: The Emergence and Persistence of Turkish Immigrant Organisations in Amsterdam and Berlin and Surinamese Organisations in Amsterdam, 1960-2000 (Academisch Proefschrift. Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2005), 151.
69. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, 73.
70. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, Ibid., 65.
71. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 98.
72. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, 123.
73. Luc Alofs and Leontine Merkies Ken Ta Arubiano? Sociale Integratie en Nativevorming op Aruba 1924-2001 (Oranjestad, Aruba: VAD/DE Wit Stores, 2001), 72-82.
74. Ibid. In the same book, the authors cite additional analysis of ethnic associations in Aruba from F. Kalm The Dispersive and Reintegrating Nature of Population Segments of a Third World Society (New York: City University of New York, 1975), 4648, 167, 171-172;
75. V. Green Aspects of Interethnic Integration in Aruba, Netherlands Antilles (Tucson; Ann Arbor University of Arizona, 1969), 116-117, 131, 135, 138,
76. and Migrants in Aruba: Interethnic Integration, 52,
77. Alofs and Merkeies also note V. Green, "Migrants in Aruba and Curacao: Comparative Adjustment Patterns," in Revista/Review Interamericana XI (3):320-335.
78. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 99.
79. Hobsbawn discusses Aruba's conception of itself as a nation and its decision to separate from Curacao and the Netherlands Antilles in E. J. Hobsbawn Nations and Nationalism since 1780. Programme, Myth, Reality (Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 178.
80. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, 63.
81. Van Niekerk, Premigration Legacies, 2002.
82. Miller, "Political Participation," in Brubaker (1989), 133-143.
83. Ewa Morawska, "Immigrants, Transnationalism, and Ethnicization: A Comparison of This Great Wave and the Last," in Gerstle and Mollenkopf E Plurihus Unum, 175-176.
84. Guarnizo, "On the Political Participation," in Gerstle and Mollenkopf, E Pluribus Unum, 214.
85. Guarnizo, "On the Political Participation," in Gerstle and Mollenkopf, E Pluribus Unum, Ibid., 222-232.
86. Vermeulen, The Immigrant Organising Process, 153.
87. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, 175-176.
88. Arend Lijphart The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968);
89. Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty Six Countries (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999);
90. "Consociational Democracy," World Politics, 21, (1969):207-225.
91. Myron Weiner, "Determinants of Immigrant Integration: An International Comparative Analysis," in Naomi Carmon ed. Immigration and Integration in Post-Industrial Societies: Theoretical Analysis and Policy-Related Research (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 46.
92. Wayne A. Cornelius, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hollifield Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1994);
93. James F. Hollifield Immigrants, Markets, and States: The Political Economy of Postwar Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).
94. Brody also notes the experiences of these two "ethnic returnee" groups in their host societies demonstrates that the shared ethnicity of immigrants with that of the host country does not necessarily facilitate their smooth integration, in Betsy Brody Opening the Door: Immigration, Ethnicity, and Globalization in Japan (New York: Routledge, 2002), 91-96, 28.
95. Oostindie and Klinkers, Decolonising the Caribbean, 64-88.
96. Murray Edelman The Symbolic Use of Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1964).
97. Brody distinguishes "practical" politics in Brody, Opening the Door, 102.
98. As cited by Bottomore from Brubaker (Brubaker 1989; 1992) in Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, 66.
99. Bottomore cites the notion of "formal" citizenship from Brubaker (1989), and discusses Brubaker's (1992) "substantive" citizenship formulation in terms of Marshall's conception of civil, political, and, especially, social rights, Ibid., 66.
100. Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou, "The New Second Generation? Segmented Assimilation and Its Variants Among Post-1965 Immigrant Youth," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530, (1993): 74-98, 83.
101. BUMIDOM refers to the French Bureau pour le développement des migrations intérrant les departments d'outre-mer. Grosfoguel, Colonial Subjects, 183, 189.
102. Myron Weiner, "International Population Movements: Implications for Foreign Policies and Migration Policies," in Donald L. Horowitz and Gerard Noiriel, eds. Immigrants in Two Democracies: French and American Experience (New York: New York University Press, 1992), 452.
103. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 4.
104. As stipulated by Wet Inburgering Nieukomers (WIN).
105. Grosfoguel, Colonial Subjects, 180, 197.
106. Castles and Davidson. Citizenship and Migration, 63.
107. Joseph H. Carens, "Membership and Morality: Admission to Citizenship in Liberal Democratic States," in Brubaker, Immigration and Politics of Citizenship.
108. Van Niekerk, Premigration Legacies, 232.
109. William Nelson, Jr. Black Atlantic Politics: Dilemmas of Political Empowerment in Boston and Liverpool (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000), 3.
110. Miller, "Political Participation" in Brubaker, Immigration and Politics of Citizenship, 132.
111. As cited from Jan Rath, "The ideological representation of migrant workers in Europe: A matter of racialisation?" In John Wrench and John Solomos eds. Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford: Berg., 1993), 215-232. in Ramón
112. Grosfoguel Colonial Subjects: Puerto Ricans in a Global Perspective (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2003), 205.
113. Philomena Essed and Cynthia Jaffe, Tr., Everyday Racism: Reports from Women of Two Cultures (Hunter House, 1991), 258.
114. Grosfoguel, Colonial Subjects, 195.
115. Grosfoguel, Colonial Subjects, Ibid., 190.
116. Nelson, Jr., Black Atlantic Politics, 14.
117. Nelson notes in endnote #49 of Chapter 1. "The concept of "nondecision making" is developed in Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, "Two Faces of Power," in Harlan Hahn and Charles Levine eds. Readings in Urban Politics: Past, Present and Future (New York: Longman Press, 1994) second edition, 149-158, 308.
118. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis," 109-110.
119. The Antillenhuis and the Arubahuis house, respectively, the Kabinet van de Gevolmachtidge van de Nederslandse Antillen and the Kabinet van de Gevolmachtigde Minister van Aruba.
120. At the time of this writing, OCaN is actively petitioning against the new policy initiative of the Dutch Immigration and Integration Minister Rita Verdonk to require young Dutch Antilleans and Arubans (18-24 years of age) to find employment or begin studies within 3 months of arrival in the Netherlands or face deportation.
121. OCaN operates within the framework of the Wet Overleg Minderhedenbelied (WOM) and the Landelijk Overleg Minderheden (LOM).
122. Portes and Zhou. "The New Second Generation," 74-98.
123. Gans. "Second Generation Decline," 173-193.
124. Formal political rights do not guarantee political participation for minorities in a marginal economic situation as argued in Castles and Davidson. Citizenship and Migration, 108, 109.
125. T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, 45.
126. Castles and Davidson, Citizenship and Migration, 110.
127. Nelson, Jr., Black Atlantic Politics, 3.
128. Van Hulst, "A continuing construction of crisis,"
129. T. K. Oommen ed. Citizenship and National Identity: From Colonialism to Globalism (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997).
130. Keiko Yamanaka, "I will go home, but when?": labor migration and circular diaspora formation by Japanese Brazilians in Japan," in Mike Douglass and Glenda S. Roberts eds. Japan and Global Migration: Foreign Workers and the Advent of a Multicultural Society (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), 126.