Contrasting effects of soil development on hydrological properties and flow paths

Water Resources Research

Volumn 41, Issue 12, 2005, Pages 1-17

  Lohse, Kathleen A ^a,c   Dietrich, William E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FLOW OF FLUIDS; GEOCHEMISTRY; HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY; HYDROLOGY; IRRIGATION; MOISTURE;

SUBSURFACE HORIZON;

SOIL MECHANICS;

FLOW OF FLUIDS; GEOCHEMISTRY; HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY; HYDROLOGY; IRRIGATION; MOISTURE; SOIL MECHANICS;

GROUNDWATER FLOW; HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY; LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION; RUNOFF; SATURATED MEDIUM; SUBSURFACE FLOW;

EID: 31444432795     PISSN: 00431397     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2004WR003403     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Anderson, M. G., and T. P. Burt (1990), Subsurface runoff, in Process Studies in Hillslope Hydrology, edited by M. G. Anderson and T. P. Burt, pp. 365-399, John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J.
2. Anderson, S. P., W. E. Dietrich, D. R. Montgomery, R. Torres, M. E. Conrad, and K. Loague (1997), Subsurface flow paths in a steep, unchanneled catchment, Water Resour. Res., 33, 2637-2653.
3. Arkley, R. J. (1964), Soil survey of the eastern Stanislaus area, California, Rep. 20, 160 pp., U.S. Dep. of Agric., Washington, D. C.
4. Arya, L. M., T. S. Dierolf, A. Sofyan, I. P. G. Widjaja-Adhi, and M. T. van Genuchten (1998), Field measurement of the saturated hydraulic conductivity of a macroporous soil with unstable subsoil structure, Soil Science, 163, 841-852.
5. Baker, J. M., and R. R. Allmaras (1990), System for automating and multiplexing soil moisture measurement by time-domain reflectrometry, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 54, 1-6.
6. Beven, K., and P. F. Germann (1982), Macropores and water flow in soils, Water Resour. Res., 18, 1311-1325.
7. Bidin, K., I. Douglas, and T. Greer (1993), Dynamic response of subsurface water levels in a zero-order tropical rainforest basin, Sabah, Malaysia, in Hydrology of Warm Humid Regions: Proceedings of the Yokohama Symposium, edited by J. S. Gladwell, pp. 491-510, Int. Assoc. of Hydrol. Sci., Wallingford, U.K.
8. Birkeland, P. W. (1999), Soils and Geomorphology, 3rd ed., Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
9. Bonell, M. (1999), Tropical forest hydrology and the role of the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 3, 451-461.
10. Bonell, M., and J. Balek (1993), Recent scientific developments and research needs in hydrological processes of the humid tropics, in Hydrology and Water Management in the Humid Tropics, edited by M. Bonell, M. M. Hufschmidt, and J. S. Gladwell, pp. 167-260, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
11. Bonell, M., and D. A. Gilmour (1978), The development of overland flow in a tropical rainforest catchment, J. Hydrol., 39, 365-382.
12. Bonell, M., D. A. Gilmour, and D. F. Sinclair (1981), Soil hydraulic properties and their effect on surface and subsurface water transfer in a tropical rainforest catchment, Hydrol. Sci. Bull., 26, 1-18.
13. Bonell, M., D. A. Gilmour, and D. S. Cassells (1983), Runoff generation in tropical rainforests of northeast Queensland, Australia, and the implications for land use management, in Hydrology of Humid Tropical Regions With Particular Reference to the Hydrological Effects Of Agriculture and Forestry Practice, pp. 287-297, Int. Assoc. of Hydrol. Sci., Wallingford, U. K.
14. Bouwer, H. (1966), Rapid field measurements of air entry value and hydraulic conductivity of soils as significant parameters in flow system analysis, Water Resour. Res., 2, 729-738.
15. Brooks, S. M., and K. S. Richards (1993), Establishing the role of pedogenesis in changing soil hydraulic properties. Earth Surf. Processes Landforms, 18, 573-578.
16. Cassel, D. K., and A. Klute (1986), Water potential: Tensiometry, in Methods of Soil Analysis, part 1, Physical and Mineralogical Methods, edited by A. Klute, pp. 563-596, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, Wis.
17. Chadwick, O. A., and J. Chorover (2001), The chemistry of pedogenic thresholds, Geoderma, 100, 321-353.
18. Chadwick, O. A., L. A. Derry, P. M. Vitousek, B. J. Huebert, and L. O. Hedin (1999), Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development, Nature, 397, 491-497.
19. Chorover, J., M. J. DiChiaro, and O. A. Chadwick (1999), Structural charge and cesium retention in a chronosequence of tephritic soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 63, 169-177.
20. Chorover, J., M. K. Amistadi, and O. A. Chadwick (2004), Surface charge evolution of mineral-organic complexes during pedogenesis in Hawaiian basalt, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 68, 4859-4876.
21. Clague, D. A., and G. B. Dalrymple (1987), The Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain: Geologic evolution, in Volcanism in Hawaii, edited by R. W. Decker, T. C. Wright, and P. H. Stauffer, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1350, 5-54.
22. Clapp, R. B., and G. M. Hornberger (1978), Empirical equations for some soil hydraulic properties, Water Resour. Res., 14, 601-604.
23. Coleman, M. L., T. J. Shepherd, J. J. Durham, J. E. Rouse, and G. R. Moore (1982), Reduction of water with zinc for hydrogen isotope analysis, Anal. Chem., 54, 993-995.
24. Cosby, B., G. Hornberger, R. Clapp, and T. Ginn (1984), Statistical exploration of the relationships of soil moisture characteristics to the physical properties of soils. Water Resour. Res., 20, 682-690.
25. Craig, H. (1953), The geochemistry of the stable carbon isotopes, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 3, 53-92.
26. Craig, H. (1961), Isotopic variation in meteoric waters. Science, 133, 1702-1703.
27. Crews, T. E., K. Kitayama, J. H. Fownes, R. H. Riley, D. A. Herbert, D. Mueller-Dombois, and P. M. Vitousek (1995), Changes in soil phosphorus fractions and ecosystem dynamics across a long chronosequence in Hawaii, Ecology, 76, 1407-1424.
28. Derry, L. A., A. C. Kurtz, K. Ziegler, and O. A. Chadwick (2005), Biological control of terrestrial silica cycling and export fluxes to watersheds. Nature, 433, 728-731.
29. Dietrich, W. E., D. M. Windsor, and T. Dunne (1982), Geology, climate, and hydrology of Barro Colorado Island, in The Ecology of a Tropical Forest: Seasonal Rhythms and Long-Term Changes, edited by E. G. Leigh Jr., A. S. Rand, and D. M. Windsor, pp. 21-46. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D. C.
30. Dunne, T. (1990), Hydrology, mechanics, and geomorphic implications of erosion by subsurface flow, in Groundwater Geomorphology: The Role Of Subsurface Water in Earth-Surface Processes and Landforms, edited by C. G. Higgins and D. R. Coates, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 252, 1-28.
31. Dykes, A. P., and J. B. Thornes (2000), Hillslope hydrology in tropical rainforest steeplands in Brunei, Hydrol. Processes, 14, 215-235.
32. Elsenbeer, H. (2001), Hydrologic flowpaths in tropical rainforest soils-capes: A review, Hydrol. Processes, 15, 2863.
33. Elsenbeer, H., and D. K. Cassel (1990), Surficial processes in the rainforest of western Amazonia, in Research Needs and Applications to Reduced Erosion and Sedimentation in Tropical Steeplands, pp. 287-297, Int. Assoc. of Hydrol. Sci., Wallingford, U. K.
34. Elsenbeer, H., D. K. Cassel, and J. Castro (1992), Spatial analysis of soil hydraulic conductivity in a tropical rain forest catchment. Water Resour. Res., 28, 3201-3214.
35. Elsenbeer, H., A. West, and M. Bonell (1994), Hydrologic pathways and stormflow hydrochemistry at South Creek, northeast Queensland, J. Hydrol., 162, 1-21.
36. Elsenbeer, H., B. E. Newton, T. Dunne, and J. M. deMoraes (1999), Soil hydraulic conductivities of latosols under pasture, forest and teak in Rondonia, Brazil, Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1417-1422.
37. Eppes, M. C., L. D. McFadden, J. Matti, and R. Powell (2002), Influence of soil development in the geomorphic evolution of landscapes: An example from the Transverse Range of California, Geology, 30, 195-198.
38. Faybishensko, B., C. Doughty, M. Steiger, J. C. S. Long, T. R. Wood, J. S. Jacobsen, J. Lore, and P. T. Zawislavski (2000), Conceptual model of the geometry and physics of water flow in fractured basalt vadose zone, Water Resour. Res., 36, 3499-3520.
39. Flury, M., M. Fluhler, W. A. Jury, and J. Leuenberger (1994), Susceptibility of soils to preferential flow of water: A field study, Water Resour. Res., 30, 1945-1954.
40. Fox, R. L., R. S. de la Pena, R. T. Gavenda, M. Habte, N. V. Hue, H. Ikawa, R. C. Jones, D. L. Plucknett, J. A. Silva, and P. Soltanpour (1991), Amelioration, revegetation, and subsequent soil formation in denuded bauxitic materials, Allertonia, 6, 128-184.
41. Gardner, R. A. (1967), Sequence of podsolic soils along the coast of northern California, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley.
42. Gavenda, R. T. (1992), Hawaiian quaternary paleoenvironments: a review of geological, pedological, and botanical evidence, Pac. Sci., 46, 295-307.
43. Gilmour, D. A., and M. Bonell (1979), Runoff processes in tropical rainforests with specific reference to a study in northeast Australia, in Geographical Approaches to Fluvial Processes, edited by A. F. Pitty, pp. 73-92, GeoBooks, Cambridge, U. K.
44. Godsey, S., and H. Elsenbeer (2002), The soil hydrologic response to forest regrowth: A case study from southwestern Amazonia, Hydrol. Processes, 16, 1519-1522.
45. Godsey, S., H. Elsenbeer, and R. Stallard (2004), Overland flow generation in two lithologically distinct rainforest catchments, J. Hydrol., 295, 276-290.
46. Green, R. E., R. A. Lajpat, S. Chong, and S. L. Lau (1982), Water Conduction in Hawai'i Oxic Soils, 143 pp., Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu.
47. Green, R. E., L. R. Ahuja, and S. K. Chong (1986), Hydraulic conductivities, diffusivity, and sorptivity of unsaturated soils: Field methods, in Methods of Soil Analysis, part 1, Physical and Mineralogical Methods, edited by A. Knute, pp. 771-823, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, Wis.
48. Hauck, R. D., J. J. Meisinger, and R. L. Mulvaney (1994), Practical considerations in the use of nitrogen tracers in agricultural and environmental research, in Methods of Soil Analysis, part 2, Biochemical and Microbiological Properties, edited by R. E. A. Weaver, pp. 910-950, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, Wis.
49. Hedin, L. O., P. M. Vitousek, and P. A. Matson (2003), Nutrient losses over four million years of tropical forest development, Ecology, 84, 2231-2255.
50. Hotchkiss, S. C., and J. O. Juvik (1993), Pollen record from Kaau Crater, Oahu, Hawaii: Evidence for a dry glacial maximum, Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am., 74, 282.
51. Hotchkiss, S., and J. O. Juvik (1999), A late-Quaternary pollen record from Ka'au Crater, O'ahu, Hawai'i, Quat. Res., 52, 115-128.
52. Hotchkiss, S., P. M. Vitousek, O. A. Chadwick, and J. Price (2000), Climate cycles: Geomorphological change and the interpretation of soil and ecosystem, development, Ecosystems, 3, 522-533.
53. Jackson, M. L., T. W. M. Levelt, J. K. Syers, R. W. Rex, R. N. Clayton, G. D. Sherman, and G. Uehara (1971), Geomorphological relationships of tropospherically derived quartz in the soils of the Hawaiian islands, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 35, 515-525.
54. Jenny, H. (1941), Factors of Soil Formation, McGraw-Hill, New York.
55. Jenny, H. (1980), The Soil Resource, Springer, New York.
56. Jenny, H., R. J. Arkley, and A. M. Schultz (1969), The pygmy forest-podsol ecosystem and its dune associates of the Mendocino coast, Madrono, 20, 60-74.
57. Kitayama, K., and D. Mueller-Dombois (1995), Vegetation changes along gradients of long-term soil development in the Hawaiian montane rainforest zone, Vegetatio, 120, 1-20.
58. Kitayama, K., E. A. G. Schuur, D. R. Drake, and D. Mueller-Dombois (1997), Fate of a wet montane forest during soil ageing in Hawaii, J. Ecol., 85, 669-679.
59. Kline, J. R., and C. F. Jordan (1968), Tritium movement in soil of tropical forest, Science, 160, 550-551.
60. Kochel, R. C., and J. F. Piper (1986), Morphology of large valleys on Hawaii: Evidence for groundwater sapping and comparisons with Martian valleys, J. Geophys. Res., 91, E175-E192.
61. Kurtz, A. C., L. A. Derry, and O. A. Chadwick (2001), Accretion of Asian dust to Hawaiian soils: Isotopic, elemental, and mineral mass balances, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65, 1971-1983.
62. Lesack, L. F. W. (1993), Export of nutrients and major ionic solutes from a rain forest catchment in the central Amazon Basin, Water Resour. Res., 29, 743-758.
63. Lohse, K. A. (2002), Hydrological and biogeochemical controls on nitrogen losses from tropical forests: Responses to anthropogenic nitrogen additions, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley.
64. Lohse, K. A., and P. A. Matson (2005), Consequences of nitrogen additions for soil processes and solution losses from wet tropical forests, Ecol. Appl., 15, 1629-1648.
65. Macdonald, G. A., A. T. Abbot, and F. L. Peterson (1983), Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii, Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
66. Malmer, A. (1996), Hydrological effects and nutrient losses of forest plantation establishment on tropical rainforest land in Sabah, Malaysia, J. Hydrol., 174, 129-148.
67. Marquardt, D. W. (1963), An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters, J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math, 11, 431-441.
68. Marthaler, H. P., W. Vogelsanger, F. Richard, and P. J. Wierenga (1983), A pressure transducer for field tensiometers, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 47, 624-627.
69. McAuliffe, J. R. (1994), Landscape evolution, soil formation, and ecological patterns and processes in Sonoran Desert bajadas, Ecol. Monogr., 64, 111-148.
70. McDonald, E. V., F. B. Pierson, G. N. Flerchinger, and L. D. McFadden (1996), Application of a soil water balance model to evaluate the influence of Holocene climate change on calcic soils, Mojave Desert, California, Geoderma, 74, 167-192.
71. McFadden, L. D., E. V. McDonald, S. G. Wells, K. Anderson, J. Quade, and S. L. Forman (1998), The vesicular layer and carbonate collars of desert soils and pavements: Formation, age and relation to climate change, Geomorphology, 24, 101-145.
72. Mizota, C., I. Kawasaki, and T. Wakatsuki (1988), Clay mineralogy and chemistry of seven pedons formed in volcanic ash, Tanzania, Geoderma, 43, 131-141.
73. Mohr, E. C. J., F. A. van Baren, and J. van Schuylenborgh (1972), Tropical Soils: A Comprehensive Study of Their Genesis, Mouton-Ichtiar Baru-Van Hoeve, Paris.
74. Moniz, A. C., and S. W. Buol (1982), Formation of an oxisol-ultisol transition in Sao Paulo, Brazil: I. Double-water flow model of soil development, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 46, 1228-1233.
75. Mualem, Y. (1976a), Hysteretical models for prediction of hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous-media, Water Resour. Res., 12, 1248-1254.
76. Mualem, Y. (1976b), New model for predicting hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous-media, Water Resour. Res., 12, 513-522.
77. Mudd, S. M., and D. J. Furbish (2004), Influence of chemical denudation on hillslope morphology, J. Geophys. Res., 109, F02001, doi:10.1029/ 2003JF000087.
78. National Research Council Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow (1996), Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Application, Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D. C.
79. Neter, J., M. Kutner, C. J. Nachtsheim, and W. Wasserman (1996), Applied Linear Statistical Models, 4th ed., Irwin, Chicago, Ill.
80. Nieuwenhuyse, A., A. G. Jongmans, and N. van Breemen (1993), Andisol formation in a Holocene beach ridge plain under the humid tropical climate of the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica, Geoderma, 57, 423-442.
81. Nieuwenhuyse, A., P. S. J. Verburg, and A. G. Jongmans (2000), Mineralogy of a soil chronosequence on andesitic lava in humid tropical Costa Rica, Geoderma, 98, 61-82.
82. Noguchi, S., A. R. Nik, B. Kasran, M. Tani, Z. Sammori, and K. Morisada (1997), Soil physical properties and preferential flowpaths in tropical rainforest, Bukit Tarek, Peninsular Malaysia, J. For. Res., 2, 115-120.
83. Nortcliff, S., and J. B. Thornes (1981), Seasonal variations in the hydrology of a small forested catchment near Manaus, Amazonas, and the implications for its management, in Tropical Agricultural Hydrology, edited by R. Lal and E. W. Russell, pp. 37-57, John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J.
84. Nortcliff, S., J. B. Thornes, and M. J. Waylen (1979), Tropical forest systems: A hydrological approach, Acta Amazonica, 4, 557-568.
85. Ohta, S., and S. Effendi (1992), Ultisols of lowland dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia: 1. Morphology and physical-properties, Soil Sci. Plant Nutrition, 38, 197-206.
86. Ostertag, R. (2001), Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus availability on fine-root dynamics in Hawaiian montane forests, Ecology, 82, 485-499.
87. Parkin, G. W., R. G. Kachanoski, D. E. Elrick, and R. G. Gibson (1995), Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity measured by time domain reflectrometry under a rainfall simulator, Water Resour. Res., 31, 447-454.
88. Rawls, W. J., D. L. Brakensiek, and K. E. Saxton (1981), Soil water characteristics, Pap. 81-2510, Am. Soc. of Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, Mich.
89. Rea, D. K. (1994), The paleoclimatic record provided by eolian deposition in the deep sea: The geologic history of wind, Rev. Geophys., 32, 159-195.
90. Reeve, R. C. (1986), Water potential: Piezometry, in Methods of Soil Analysis, part. 1, Physical and Mineralogical Methods, edited by A. Klute, pp. 545-561, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am., Madison, Wis.
91. Seyfried, M. S., and P. S. C. Rao (1987), Solute transport in undisturbed columns of an aggregated tropical soil preferential flow effects, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 51, 1434-1444.
92. Sherman, G. D. (1950), The genesis and morphology of Hawaiian ferruginous laterite crusts, Pac. Sci., 4, 315-322.
93. Sklash, M. G. (1990), Environmental isotope studies of storm and snowmelt runoff generation, in Process Studies in Hillslope Hydrology, edited by M. G. Anderson and T. P. Burt, pp. 401-435, John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J.
94. Sobieraj, J. A., H. Elsenbeer, R. M. Coelho, and B. Newton (2002), Spatial variability of soil hydraulic conductivity along a tropical rainforest catena, Geoderma, 108, 79-90.
95. Soil Survey Staff (1999), Soil Taxonomy, U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D. C.
96. Sollins, P., and R. Radulovich (1988), Effects of soil physical structure on solute transport in a weathered tropical soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 52, 1168-1173.
97. Southard, R. J., and S. W. Buol (1988), Subsoil blocky structure formation in some North Carolina paleudults and paleaquults, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 52, 1069-1076.
98. Tindall, J. A., J. R. Kunkel, and D. E. Anderson (1999), Unsaturated Zone Hydrology for Scientists and Engineers, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N. J.
99. Topp, G. C., and J. L. Davis (1985), Measurement of soil water content using time domain reflectrometry (TDR): A field evaluation, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 49, 19-24.
100. Topp, G. C., J. L. Davis, and A. P. Annan (1980), Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurement in coaxial transmission lines, Water Resour. Res., 16, 574-582.
101. Toride, N., and F. J. Leij (1996), Convective dispersive stream tube model for field-scale solute transport. 1. Moment analysis, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 60, 342-352.
102. Toride, N., F. J. Leij, and M. T. van Genuchten (1999), The CXTFIT code for estimating transport parameters from laboratory or field tracer experiments, U.S. Dep. of Agric., Riverside, Calif.
103. Torn, M. S., S. E. Trumbore, O. A. Chadwick, P. M. Vitousek, and D. M. Hendricks (1997), Mineral control of soil organic carbon storage and turnover, Nature, 389, 170-173.
104. Torres, R., W. E. Dietrich, D. R. Montgomery, S. P. Anderson, and K. Loague (1998), Unsaturated zone processes and the hydrologic response of a steep, unchanneled catchment, Water Resour. Res., 34, 1865-1879.
105. Tsuji, G. Y., R. T. Watanabe, and W. S. Sakai (1975), Influence of soil micro-structure on water characteristics of selected Hawaiian soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 39, 28-33.
106. van Breemen, N., and P. Buurman (1998), Soil Formation, Springer, New York.
107. van Genuchten, M. T. (1980), A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44, 892-898.
108. Vervoort, R. W., D. E. Radcliffe, and L. T. West (1999), Soil structure development and preferential solute flow, Water Resour. Res., 35, 913-928.
109. Vitousek, P. M. (2004), Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model System, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N. J.
110. Vitousek, P. M., O. A. Chadwick, T. E. Crews, J. H. Fownes, D. M. Hendricks, and D. Herbert (1997), Soil and ecosystem development across the Hawaiian islands, GSA Today, 7, 1-8.
111. Walker, T. W., and J. K. Syers (1976), The fate of phosphorus during pedogenesis, Geoderma, 15, 1-19.
112. Walsh, R. P. D. (1980), Runoff processes and models in the humid tropics, Z. Geomorphol. Suppl., 36, 176-202.
113. Wells, S. G., L. D. McFadden, and J. C. Dohrenwend (1987), Influences of late Quaternary climatic changes on geomorphic and pedogenic processes on a desert piedmont, eastern Mojave Desert, California, Quat. Res., 27, 130-146.
114. Wenzel, W. W., H. Unterfrauner, A. Schulte, D. Ruhiyat, D. Simorangkir, V. Kuraz, A. Brandestetter, and W. E. H. Blum (1998), Hydrology of acrisols beneath dipterocarp forests and plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, in Soils of Tropical Forest Ecosystems, edited by A. Schulte and D. Ruhiyat, pp. 62-72, Springer, New York.
115. Wolfe, E. W., and J. Morris (1996), Geologic map of the island of Hawaii, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Invest. Ser. Map, I-2524-A.