The indigo dye industry in colonial Bengal: A re-examination

Indian Economic and Social History Review

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 199-224

  Ray, Indrajit ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL   (India)

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EID: 3142757026     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946460404100204     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. M. Gittinger, Master Dyes to the World, Washington, 1982, p. 22; and W.A. Vetterli, 'The History of Indigo', Ciba Review, Vol. 85, 1951, pp. 30-66.
2. M. Gittinger, Master Dyes to the World, Washington, 1982, p. 22; and W.A. Vetterli, 'The History of Indigo', Ciba Review, Vol. 85, 1951, pp. 30-66.
3. For details vide Jenny Balfour-Paul, Indigo in Arab World, Curzon, Surrey, 1997, pp. 155-74.
4. There were, however, three important ancient dyes, viz., tropical indigo, woad and selfish purple, But tropical indigo was by far the most popular.
5. G. Scholem, 'Colours and their Symbolism in Jewish Tradition and Mysticism', Diogenese, Vol. 108, 1979, pp. 84-111 and Vol. 109, 1980, pp. 64-76.
6. G. Scholem, 'Colours and their Symbolism in Jewish Tradition and Mysticism', Diogenese, Vol. 108, 1979, pp. 84-111 and Vol. 109, 1980, pp. 64-76.
7. 'Textiles in Biblical Times', Ciba Review, Vol. 102, 1968, pp. 18-19.
8. R.B. Serjeant, Islamic Textiles, Beirut, 1972.
9. K.N. Chaudhuri noted in this connection, 'The revival of the indigo trade of India dates from 1780s when French Wars and the slave revolt in West Indies began to reduce from this source.' See, The Economic Development of India under the East India Company, 1814-58, Cambridge, 1971, p. 32. See also Binoy Chowdhuri, Growth of Commercial Agriculture in Bengal, Calcutta, 1964, p. 74.
10. K.N. Chaudhuri noted in this connection, 'The revival of the indigo trade of India dates from 1780s when French Wars and the slave revolt in West Indies began to reduce from this source.' See, The Economic Development of India under the East India Company, 1814-58, Cambridge, 1971, p. 32. See also Binoy Chowdhuri, Growth of Commercial Agriculture in Bengal, Calcutta, 1964, p. 74.
11. See, for example, N.K. Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, 1793-1848, Calcutta, 1985, pp. 21-25; H.R. Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, 1793-1833, Calcutta, pp. 73-94; Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, 1775-1970, Vol. II, Delhi, 1982, pp. 315-18.
12. See, for example, N.K. Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, 1793-1848, Calcutta, 1985, pp. 21-25; H.R. Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, 1793-1833, Calcutta, pp. 73-94; Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, 1775-1970, Vol. II, Delhi, 1982, pp. 315-18.
13. See, for example, N.K. Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, 1793-1848, Calcutta, 1985, pp. 21-25; H.R. Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, 1793-1833, Calcutta, pp. 73-94; Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, 1775-1970, Vol. II, Delhi, 1982, pp. 315-18.
14. Bal Krishna, Commercial Relation between India and England, London, pp. 94-96 and 155-57.
15. The Indian monetary unit of Sicca rupee or the British monetary unit of pound sterling-shilling-pence has been used in this study.
16. Bal Krishna, Commercial Relation, p. 94.
17. J.C. Sinha, Economic Annals of Bengal, Calcutta, 1927, p. 178 and P.J. Marshall, The East India Fortunes, London, 1976, pp. 153-54.
18. J.C. Sinha, Economic Annals of Bengal, Calcutta, 1927, p. 178 and P.J. Marshall, The East India Fortunes, London, 1976, pp. 153-54.
19. See, Surat Letter of the Company dated 31 Dec. 1630, referred to Bal Krishna, Commercial Relation, p. 95.
20. I b i d.
21. Letter from Surat Factory to the Court of Directors, dated 19 Jan. 1656, available in William Foster, ed., The English Factories in India: 1655-1660, Oxford, 1921, p. 52.
22. Bal Krishna. Commercial Relation, Appendix C of Chapter VI, p. 303.
23. ibid., p. 52.
24. pp. 61 and 308.
25. Letter from the Court of Directors to Surat Factory, dated 22 Feb. 1660, available in William Foster, ed., the English Factories in India, p. 322.
26. Letter from the Court of Directors to Surat Factory, dated 24 Sep. 1660, available in William Foster, ed., The English Factories in India, p. 336.
27. I b i d.
28. I b i d.
29. Bal Krishna, Commercial Relation, Appendix C of Chapter VI, p. 303.
30. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. III (new edition), 1972, Today & Tomorrow Printers, New Delhi (originally published in 1908)
31. East India Company, Report and documents in regard to cultivation and manufacture of cotton, wool, raw silk and indigo in India (henceforth Reports and Documents), London, 1836.
32. K.N. Chaudhuri, The Economic Development of India, p. 31.
33. W.M. Reid, The Culture and Manufacture of Indigo, Calcutta, 1887, p. 163.
34. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 11 Apr. 1785, Reports and Documents, collection no. 2.
35. W.M. Reid, The Culture and Manufacture of Indigo, p. 130.
36. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 11 Apr. 1785, Reports and Documents, collection no. 4. This communication, as also the following five citations, refer to Bengal districts.
37. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 28 Mar. 1787, Reports and Documents, collection no. 4.
38. I b i d.
39. George Chalmers, 'Remarks on Some Specimens of East India Indigo', enclosed with the letter from the Secretary, The Lords Committee of the Privy Council for Trade, dated 6 Feb. 1789, Reports and Documents, collection no. 5.
40. Vide Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 11 Apr. 1785, Reports and Documents, collection no. 1.
41. Reports and Documents, collection no. 4.
42. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 28 Mar. 1787, Reports and Documents, collection no. 4.
43. K.N. Chaudhuri, The Economic Development of India, p. 32.
44. Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, p. 3.
45. S. Bhattacharya has noted, The government of the East India Company, badly in need of a profitable external commerce, mainly as a medium of remittance from Bengal to England, in the context of the growing indications of potential decline of the once prosperous trade in Bengal cotton goods, found indigo a promising substitute . . .'. See Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. II, p. 315.
46. See G.A. Prinsep, 'Remarks on the External Commerce and Exchange of Bengal', in K.N. Chaudhuri, ed., The Economic Development of India, pp. 69-70 and 150-51.
47. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 18 Sep. 1820, Reports and Documents, collection no. 13.
48. I b i d.
49. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 30 July 1806, Reports and Documents, collection no. 17.
50. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 10 Apr. 1811, Reports and Documents, collection no. 21. For a detailed analysis on the discontinuity of this scheme, see Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, p. 76.
51. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 10 Apr. 1811, Reports and Documents, collection no. 21. For a detailed analysis on the discontinuity of this scheme, see Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, p. 76.
52. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 25 June 1793, Reports and Documents, collection no. 8.
53. For details, see Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, p. 22.
54. Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Trade, Bengal, dated 28 Oct. 1796, Reports and Documents, collection no. 4.
55. Reports and Documents, collection no. 4.
56. Sinha, The Economic History of Bengal, p. 21.
57. Indrajit Ray, 'Shipbuilding in Bengal under Colonial Rule: A Case of De-industrialisation', Journal of Transport History, Vol. 16(1), 1995, pp. 77-97.
58. Ibid., pp. 87-90.
59. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 6 May 1791, Reports and Documents, collection no. 7.
60. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 28 Aug. 1800, Reports and Documents, collection no. 12.
61. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 5 May 1792, Reports and Documents, collection no. 7.
62. I b i d.
63. For a scholastic analysis of fluctuations in the export of Bengal indigo, see Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. II, pp. 315-18.
64. Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor-General in Council, Bengal, dated 20 June 1810, Reports and Documents, collection no. 20.
65. A brief review of the price trend of Bengal indigo during the first quarter of the nineteenth century is available in Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, pp. 85-86.
66. An Account of the Weight of Indigo, Reports and Documents, collection no. 24.
67. Reid, The Culture and Manufacture of Indigo, pp. 164-65.
68. In a letter to the Governor-General in Council dated 31 August 1804, the Court of Directors observed, 'We are aware that the interests of the indigo manufacturers have repetedly sufferd by the indiscreet competition of new adventurers; but we cannot approve the principle of an interference on the part of the Government to check such an evil, and think that you did well in refusing your sanction to the proposal of the established manufacturers.' Reports and Documents, collection no. 15.
69. W.W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal, London, 1876, Vol. III, p. 381.
70. Reports of the Committee on East India Affairs, 1831, Vol. 3, p. 157.
71. For a discussion on indigenous indigo manufacturers, see Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, pp. 78-79.
72. M.N. Pal, The Industrial Development of India, Calcutta, 1930, pp. 160-63.
73. R.M. Martin, The History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of Eastern India, London, 1838, Vol. II. p. 991.
74. Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of East India Company, Appendix no. 77p. 350, National Library, Calcutta.
75. I b i d.
76. Vide Ashok Rudra, Indian Plan Models, Bombay/New Delhi, 1976, pp. 120-21.
77. Report of Select Committee on the Affairs of East India Company, Appendix no. 77, p. 349, National Library, Calcutta.
78. Speech of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore at the meeting dated 20 No v. 1829 at Town Hall, Calcutta, quoted in Settlement of Europeans in India, Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of East India Company, 1831-32, General Appendix V, no. 77, pp. 364-65, National Library, Calcutta.
79. Speech of Raja Rammohan Roy, in Settlement of Europeans in India, Report of the Select Committee on the Affairs of East India Company, 1831-32, General Appendix V, no. 77, pp. 364-65, National Library, Calcutta.
80. Letter of Lord Bentinck to the Court of Directors dated 30 May 1829 in Settlement of Europeans in India.
81. Minute of Lieutenant Governor of Bengal on the Report of the Indigo Commission, Papers relating to Indigo Cultivation in Bengal, no. 4, PP.HC, 1861, Vol. 45, National Library, Calcutta.
82. Letter from the Secretary of State for India in Council to the Governor-General of India in Council in the Judicial Department dated 8 Apr. 1861 in Papers relating to Indigo Cultivation in Bengal, National Library, Calcutta.
83. That the cultivators were not willing to cultivate indigo from the early 1840s is evident in the minutes of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, and witness J.C. Palchowdhuri in Settlement of Europeans in India.
84. Report of Indigo Commission, PP.HC, 1861, Vol. 44, National Library, Calcutta.
85. Memorial of Landlords and Commercial Association of British India, dated Apr. 1861, Papers relating to Indigo Cultivation in Bengal, National Library, Calcutta.
86. Vide answers 1150, 1150, 1216, 1249 and 3214 respectively in Report of Indigo Commission.
87. Minute of Lieutenant Governor of Bengal on the Report of the Indigo Commission, Papers relating to Indigo Cultivation in Bengal, p. 72
88. I b i d.
89. I b i d.
90. Ibid., p. 73.
91. I b i d.
92. The preamble of Act IV of 1840 states in this regard, 'Whereas it is expedient to remove doubts which have arisen upon the interpretation of Regulation XV of 1824 and ... to make it applicable to persons of every class or description, whether British-born or others.' Vide Papers Relating to Indigo Cultivation in Bengal, PP.HC., 1861, Vol. 45, pp. 303-4, National Library, Calcutta.
93. The ignorance of people regarding existing laws is evident in the fact that ryots used to pay a cess of Rs 2 per plough (amounting to Rs 5,000 per annum in total) to Prannath Chowdhuri, a zamindar of Balinda in Barasat, for the closure of the existing indigo factory until they came to know that indigo cultivation was optional. Vide the evidence of A. Eden (Addendum), Report of Indigo Commission, Appendix 22.
94. See footnote 44.
95. Minute of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal on the Report of the Indigo Commission, p. 71.
96. Memorial of Principal Merchants at Calcutta to the Governor General in Council, Bengal dated 28 Jan. 1829, Report from the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company, PP.HC., 1831-32, Vol. 3, General Appendix, National Library, Calcutta. For a detailed discussion on early difficulties of planters regarding land, see Ghosal, Economic Transition in Bengal Presidency, p. 75.
97. Report of the Indigo Commission, Appendix 1, pp. i-xii.
98. Evidence of R.T. Larmour, Report of Indigo Commission, Evidences, Answer 1964.
99. Evidence of J.C. Palchowdhuri, Report of Indigo Commission, Evidences, p. 11.
100. I b i d.
101. Report of the Indigo Commission, Appendix 1, pp. i-xii.
102. Report of the Indigo Commission, Appendix 1, p. x.
103. I b i d.
104. I b i d.
105. Evidence of Eden, Report of the Indigo Commission.
106. John Gregor, British Trade with India, PP.HC, 1847-48, Vol. 61, pp. 167 and 170-77, National Library, Calcutta.