Trematode behaviours and the perceptual worlds of parasites

Canadian Journal of Zoology

Volumn 82, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 292-315

  Sukhdeo, M V K ^a   Sukhdeo, S C ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECOLOGY; ECOSYSTEMS; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; SENSORY PERCEPTION;

HOST FINDING ACTIVITIES; TREMATODES;

MICROORGANISMS;

HOST LOCATION; LIFE HISTORY; NEMATODE; PARASITE;

ANIMALIA; TREMATODA;

EID: 3142709655     PISSN: 00084301     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/z03-212     Document Type: Review

References (325)

1. Alcock, J. 1998. Animal behavior: an evolutionary approach. Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, Mass.
2. Alicata, J.E. 1962. Life cycle and developmental stages of Philophthalmus gralli in the intermediate and final hosts. J. Parasitol. 48: 47-54.
3. Anokhin, I. 1966. Diurnal cycle of the activity and behaviour of ants (Formica pratensis Retz.) invaded by metacercaria of Dicrocoelium lanceatum during the grazing period. Zool. Zh. 45: 687-692.
4. Asch, H.L. 1972. Rhythmic emergence of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae from Biomphalaria glabrata: control on illumination. Exp. Parasitol. 31: 350-355.
5. Askew, R.R. 1971. Parasitic insects. Heinemann, London.
6. Barbour, M.T., Gerritsen, J., Snyder, B.D., and Stribling, J.B. 1999. Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. 2nd ed. EPA 841-B-99-002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, D.C.
7. Bartoli, P. 1984. Redescription de Cercaria setifera F.S. Monticell, 1914 (nee J. Müller) (Trematoda) parasite de Conus ventricosus Hwass; comparaison avec quelques cercaires optalmotrichocerques de Mé diterranée occidentale. Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 59: 161-176.
8. Bartoli, P., and Combes, C. 1986. Stratégies de dissémination des cercaires de Trématodes dans un écosystèe marin littoral. Acta Oecol. Oecol. Gen. 7: 101-114.
9. Behrens, A.C., and Nollen, P.M. 1992. Responses of Echinostoma caproni miracidia to gravity, light, and chemicals. Int. J. Parasitol. 22: 673-675.
10. Bettendorf, H. 1897. Ueber Muskulatur und Sinneszellen der Trematoden. Zool. Jahrb. (Anatomie), 10: 307-358.
11. Betterton, C. 1974. Studies on the host-specificity of the eyefluke, Diplostomum spathaceum in brown and rainbow trout. Parasitology, 69: 11-29.
12. Beuret, J., and Pearson, J.C. 1994. Description of a new zygocercous cercaria (Opisthorchioidea: Heterophyidae) from prosobranch gastropods collected at Heron Island (Great Barrier Reef, Australia) and a review of zygocercariae. Syst. Parasitol. 27: 105-125.
13. Bogéa, T. 1998. Distribution and morphology of sensory papillae in the cercaria of Allassogonoporus marginalis (Digenea: Lecithodendriidae). Parasitol. Int. 47: 120.
14. Bogéa, T., and Caira, J.N. 2001. Ultrastructure and chaetotaxy of sensory receptors in the cercariae of a species of Crepidostomum Graun, 1900 and Bunodera Railliet, 1896 (Digenea: allocreadiiae). J. Parasitol. 87: 273-286.
15. Brassard, P., Rau, M.E., and Curtis, M.A. 1982. Parasite-induced susceptibility to predation in diplostomiasis. Parasitology, 85: 495-501.
16. Brownlee, D.J.A., Fairweather, I., Johnston, C.F., Thorndyke, M.C., and Skuce, P.J. 1995. Immunocytochemical demonstration of a SALMFamide-like neuropeptide in the nervous system of adult and larval stages of the human blood fluke, Schistosoma mansoni. Parasitology, 110: 143-153.
17. Bruce, J.I., Pezzol, F., Yajima, Y., and McCarthy, J.E. 1974. Schistosoma mansoni: pulmonary phase of schistosomule migration studies by electron microscopy. Parasitology, 35: 150-160.
18. Bullock, T.H. (Editor). 1957. The trigger concept in biology. In Physiological triggers. American Physiological Society, Washington, D.C. pp. 1-8.
19. Bullock, T.H., and Horridge, G.A. 1965. Structure and function in the nervous systems of invertebrates. Vol. I. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
20. Bundy, D.A.P. 1981. Swimming behaviour of the cercaria of Transversotrema patialense. Parasitology, 82: 319-334.
21. Burns, W.C. 1961. Penetration and development of Allassogonophorous verspertiolonis and Acathatrium oregense (Trematoda: Lecithodendriidae) cercariae in caddisfly larvae. J. Parasitol. 47: 927-932.
22. Cable, R.M. 1963. Marine cercariae from Curacao and Jamaica. Z. Parasitenkd. 23: 173-193.
23. Cable, R.M. 1972. Behaviour of digenetic trematodes. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 51: 1-18.
24. Campbell, W.C. 1961. Notes on the egg and miracidium of Fascioloides magna (Trematoda). Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 80: 308-319.
25. Campbell, W.C., and Todd, A.C. 1955. Behaviour of the miracidium of Fascioloides magna (Bassi 1875) Ward 1917 in presence of a snail host. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 74: 324-346.
26. Carney, W.P. 1967. Notes on the life cycle of Brachylecithum mosquensis (Skrjabin and Isaitschikoff, 1927) from the bile ducts of the robin, Turdus migratorius, in Montana. Can. J. Zool. 45: 131-134.
27. Carney, W.P. 1969. Behavioral and morphological changes in carpenter ants harboring dicrocoeliid metacercariae. Am. Midl. Nat. 82: 605-611.
28. Chapman, H.D. 1974. The behaviour of the cercaria of Cryptocotyle lingua. Z. Parasitenkd. 44: 211-226.
29. Chapman, H.D., and Wilson, R.A. 1973. The propulsion of the cercariae of Himasthla secunda (Nicoll) and Cryptocotyle lingua. Parasitology, 67: 1-15.
30. Cheng, T.C. 1963. Activation of Gorgodera amplicava cercariae by molluscan sera. Exp. Parasitol. 13: 342-347.
31. Cheng, T.C., and Cooperman, J.S. 1964. Studies on host-parasite relationships between larval trematodes and their hosts. V. The invasion of the reproductive system of Helisoma trivolvis by the sporocysts and cercariae of Glypthelmins pennsylvaniensis. Trans. Am Microsc. Soc. 83: 12-23.
32. Cheng, T.C., and Thakur, A.S. 1967. Thermal activation and inactivation of Philophthalmus gralli metacercariae. J. Parasitol. 53: 212-213.
33. Chernin, E. 1970. Behavioral responses of miracidia of Schistosoma mansoni and other trematodes to substances emitted by snails. J. Parasitol. 56: 287-296.
34. Chernin, E., and Dunavan, C.A. 1962. The influence of host-parasite dispersion upon the capacity of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia in infecting Australorbis glabratus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 11: 455-471.
35. Chessman, B.C. 1995. Rapid assessment of rivers using macroinvertebrates: a procedure based on habitat-specific sampling, family level identification and a biotic index. Aust. J. Ecol. 20: 122-129.
36. Christensen, N.OE. 1980. A review of the influence of host- and parasite-related factors and environmental conditions on the host-finding capacity of the trematode miracidium. Acta Trop. 37: 303-318.
37. Clegg, J.A. 1969. Skin penetration by cercariae of the bird schsitosome Austrobilharzia terrigalensis: the stimulatory effect of cholesterol. Parasitology, 59: 973-989.
38. Coil, W.H. 1984. An analysis of swimming by the cercariae of Fasciola hepatica using high speed cinematography. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 51: 293-296.
39. Colgan, G.J., and Nollen, P.M. 1977. Studies on the growth, development, and infectivity of Philophthalmus hegeneri Penner and Fried, 1963 in the chick. J. Parasitol. 63: 675-680.
40. Combes, C. 1971. Uber die Rolle des Verhaltens des Zweiten Zwischenwirtes im biologischen Zyklus der Gorgoderiden. Parasitol. Schriftenr. 21: 183-185.
41. Combes, C. 1980. Les mécanismes de recrutements chez les métazoaires parasites et leur interprétation en termes de stratégies démographiques. Vie Milieu, 30: 55-63.
42. Combes, C. 1990. Where do human schistosomes come from? Trends Ecol. Evol. 5: 334-337.
43. Combes, C., and Théron, A. 1977. Rhythmes d'emergences des cercaires de trematodes et leur interet dans l'infestation de l'homme et des animaux. Excerta Parasitologica en Memoria del Doctor Eduardo Caballero y Caballero, Mexico. pp. 141-150.
44. Combes, C., Fournier, A., Moné, H., and Théron, A. 1994. Behaviours in trematode cercariae that enhance parasite transmission: patterns and processes. Parasitology, 109(Suppl.): S3-S13.
45. Combes, C., Bartoli, P., and Théron, A. 2002. Trematode transmission strategies. In The behavioural ecology of parasites. Edited by E.E. Lewis, J.F. Campbell, and M.V.K. Sukhdeo. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK. pp. 1-12.
46. Crabtree, J.E., and Wilson, R.A. 1980. Schistosoma mansoni: a scanning electron microscope study of the developing schistosomulum. Parasitology, 81: 553-564.
47. Croll, N.A. 1970. Sensory basis of activation in nematodes. Exp. Parasitol. 27: 350-356.
48. Croll, N.A., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1981. Hierarchies of nematode behaviour. In Plant parasitic nematodes. Edited by B.M. Zuckerman. Vol. 3. Academic Press, London. pp. 31-52.
49. Crowden, A.E. 1976. Diplostomum spathaceum in the Thames; occurrence and effects on fish behaviour. Parasitology, 73: vii.
50. Crowden, A.E., and Broom, D.M. 1980. Effects of the eyefluke, Diplostomum spathaceum, on the behaviour of dace (Leuciscus leuciscus). Anim. Behav. 28: 287-294.
51. Danley, D.A. 1973. The harderian gland and site-finding by metacercariae of Philophthalmus meglaurus (Trematoda: Digenea). J. Parasitol. 59: 457-462.
52. Dawes, B. 1963. The migration of juvenile forms of Fasciola hepatica L. through the wall of the intestines in the mouse, with some observations on food and feeding. Parasitology, 53: 109-122.
53. Dawes, B., and Hughes, D.L. 1964. Fasciola and fascioliasis. Adv. Parasitol. 2: 97-168.
54. Dixon, K.E. 1965. The structure and histochemistry of the cyst wall of the metacercariae of Fasciola hepatica L. Parasitology, 55: 215-226.
55. Dixon, K.E. 1966. The physiology of excystment of the metacercariae of Fasciola hepatica. Parasitology, 56: 431-436.
56. Dobrovolny, C.G. 1939. Life history of Plagioporus sinitsini Mueller and embryology of new cotylocercous cercariae (Trematoda). Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 58: 121-155.
57. Dönges, J. 1964. Der Lebenszyklus von Posthodiplostomum cuticola (v. Nordmann 1832) Dubois 1936 (Trematoda: Diplostomatidae). Z. Parasitenkd. 24: 169-248.
58. Doy, T.G., and Hughes, D.L. 1984. Early migration of immature Fasciola hepatica and associate liver pathology in cattle. Res. Vet. Sci. 37: 219-222.
59. Dyer, F.C., and Brockmann, H.J. 1996. Sensory processes, orientation, and communication: biology of the Umwelt. In Foundations of animal behavior. Edited by L.D. Houck and L.C. Drickamer. Chicago University Press, Chicago. pp. 529-538.
60. Emlen, S.T. 1969. Bird migration: influence of physiological state upon celestrial orientation. Science (Wash., D.C.), 165: 716-718.
61. Erasmus, D.A. 1958. Studies on the morphology, biology and development of a strigeoid cercaria (Cercaria X Baylis 1930). Parasitology, 48: 312-335.
62. Erasmus, D.A. 1959. The migration of Cercaria X Baylis (Strigeida) within the fish intermediate host. Parasitology, 49: 173-190.
63. Erasmus, D.A. 1972. The biology of trematodes. Edward Arnold Limited, London.
64. Esch, G.W., and Fernandez, J. 1994. Snail-trematode interactions and parasite community dynamics in aquatic systems: a review. Am. Midl. Nat. 131: 209-237.
65. Esch, G.W., Barger, M.A., and Fellis, K.J. 2002. The transmission of digenetic trematodes: style, elegance, complexity. Integr. Comp. Biol. 42: 304-312.
66. Esch, G.W., Curtis, L.A., and Barger, M.A. 2001. A perspective on the ecology of trematode communities in snails. Parasitology, 123(Suppl.): S57-S76.
67. Etges, F.J., and Decker, C.L. 1963. Chemosensitivity of the miracidium of Schistosoma mansoni to Australorbis glabratus and other snails. J. Parasitol. 49: 114-116.
68. Etges, P.J., Carter, O.S., and Webbe, G. 1975. Behavioural and developmental physiology of schistosome larva as related to their molluscan hosts. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 266: 480-496.
69. Evans, N.A., and Gordon, D.M. 1983. Experimental studies on the transmission dynamics of the cercariae of Echinoparyphium recurvatum (Digenea: Echinostomatidae). Parasitology, 87: 167-174.
70. Ewald, P.W. 1995. The evolution of virulence: a unifying link between parasitology and ecology. J. Parasitol. 81: 659-669.
71. Faust, E.C., and Khaw, K. 1927. Studies on Clonorchis sinensis (Cobbold). Am. J. Hyg. Monogr. Ser. No. 8.
72. Faust, E.C., and Meleney, H.E. 1924. Studies on Schistosoma japonica. Am. J. Hyg. Monogr. Ser. No. 3.
73. Feiler, W., and Haas, W. 1988. Host-finding in Trichobilharzia ocellata cercariae: swimming and attachment to the host. Parasitology, 96: 493-505.
74. Ferguson, M.S. 1943. Migration and localization of an animal parasite within the host. J. Exp. Zool. 93: 375-401.
75. Fraenkel, G.S., and Gunn, D.L. 1940. The orientation of animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
76. Fraenkel, G.S., and Gunn, D.L. 1961. The orientation of animals. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
77. Fried, B. 1970. Excystation of metacercariae of Postodiplostomum minimum minimum Hoffman 1958, and their development in the chick and on the choriallantois. J. Parasitol. 56: 944-946.
78. Fried, B. 1994. Metacercarial excystment of trematodes. Adv. Parasitol. 33: 91-138.
79. Fried, B., and Huffman, J.E. 1996. The biology of the intestinal trematode Echinostoma caproni. Adv. Parasitol. 38: 311-368.
80. Fried, B., and King, W. 1989. Attraction of Echinostoma revolutum cercariae to Biomphalaria glabrata dialysate. J. Parasitol. 75: 55-57.
81. Fried, B., and Roth, M. 1974. In vitro encystment of the metacercaria of Parorchis acanthus. J. Parasitol. 60: 465.
82. Fried, B., and Penner, L.R. 1963. Exposure of chicks to the metacercariae of Philophthalmus hegeneri Penner and Fired, 1963. J. Parasitol. 49: 978-980.
83. Fried, B., Schmidt, K.A., and Sorensen, R.E. 1997. In vivo and ectopic encystment of Echinostoma revolutum and chemical excystation of the metacercariae. J. Parasitol. 83: 251-54.
84. Fried, B., LaTerra, R., and Kim, Y. 2002. Emergence of cercariae of Echinostoma caproni and Schistosoma mansoni from Biomphalaria glabrata under different laboratory conditions. J. Helminthol. 76: 369-371.
85. Garcia, E.G. 1976. The biology of Schistosoma japonicaum, Philippine strain: a review. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 7: 190-196.
86. Geervliet, J.B.F., Ariëns, S., Dicke, M., and Vet, L.E.M. 1998a. Long-distance assessment of patch profitability through volatile infochemicals by the parasitoids Cotesia glomerata and C. rubecula (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Biol. Control, 11: 113-121.
87. Geervliet, J.B.F., Vreugdenhil, A.I., Dicke, M., and Vet, L.E.M. 1998b. Learning to discriminate between infochemicals from different plant-host complexes by the parasitoids Cotesia glomerata and C. rubecula (Hym: Braconidae). Entomol. Exp. Appl. 86: 241-252.
88. Gerber, J.H. 1952. Bilharzia in Boajibu. II. The human population. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 55: 79-93.
89. Goodchild, C.G. 1948. Additional observations on the bionomics and life history of Gorgodera amplicava Looss 1899 (Trematoda: Gorgoderidae). J. Parasitol. 34: 407-427.
90. Gordon, R.M., and Griffiths, R.B. 1951. Observations on the means by which cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni penetrate mammalian skin. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 45: 227-243.
91. Graefe, G.W., Hohorst, W., and Dräger, H. 1967. Forked tail of the cercaria of Schistosoma mansoni - a rowing device. Nature (Lond.), 215: 207-208.
92. Griffiths, H.J. 1939. Observations on the bionomics of ova and miracidia of Fasciola hepatica Linn. in Eastern Canada. Can. J. Res. Sci. D17: 205-211.
93. Gustafsson, M.K.S. 1988. Helminth nervous system. In Parasitology in focus: facts and trends. Edited by H. Mehlhorn. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 295-310.
94. Haas, W. 1969. Reizphysiologische Untersuchungen an Cercarien von Diplostomum spathaceum. Z. Vgl. Physiol. 64: 254-287.
95. Haas, W. 1974. Analyse der Invasionsmechanismen der Cercarie von Diplostomum spathaceum. I. Fixation unde Penetration. Int. J. Parasitol. 4: 311-319.
96. Haas, W. 1976. Die Anheftung (Fixation) der Cercarie von Schistosoma mansoni. Einfluss natürlicher Substrate und der Temperatur. Z. Parasitenkd. 49: 63-72.
97. Haas, W. 1992. Physiological analysis of cercarial behavior. J. Parasitol. 78: 243-255.
98. Haas, W. 1994a. Physiological analyses of host-finding behaviour in trematode cercariae: adaptations for transmission success. Parasitology, 109(Suppl.): S15-S29.
99. Haas, W. 1994b. Schistosoma haematobium cercarial host-finding and host-recognition differs from that of S. mansoni. J. Parasitol. 80: 345-353.
100. Haas, W., Granzer, M., and Garcia, E.G. 1987. Host identification by Schistosoma japonicum cercariae. J. Parasitol. 73: 568-577.
101. Haas, W., Granzer, M., and Brockelman, C. 1990a. Opisthorchis viverrini: finding and recognition of the fish host by the cercariae. Exp. Parasitol. 71: 422-431.
102. Haas, W., Granzer, M., and Brockelman, C. 1990b. Finding and recognition of the bovine host by the cercariae of Schistosoma spindale. Parasitol. Res. 76: 343-350.
103. Haas, W., Gui, M., Haberl, B., and Ströbel, M. 1991. Miracidia of Schistosoma japonicum: approach and attachment to the snail host. J. Parasitol. 77: 509-513.
104. Haas, W., Korner, M., Hutterer, E., Wegner, M., and Haberl, B. 1995. Finding and recognition of the snail intermediate hosts by 3 species of echinostome cercariae. Parasitology, 110: 133-142.
105. Haas, W., Grabe, K., Geis, C., Paech, R., Stoll, K., Fuchs, M., Haberl, B., and Loy, C. 2002. Recognition and invasion of human skin by Schistosoma mansoni cercariae: the key role of L-arginine. Parasitology, 124: 153-167.
106. Haberl, B., and Haas, W. 1992. Miracidium of Schistosoma mansoni: a macromolecular glycoconjugate as signal for the behaviour after contact with the snail host. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 101: 329-333.
107. Haberl, B., Kroner, M., Spengler, Y., Hertel, J., Kalbe, M., and Haas, W. 2000. Host-finding in Echinostoma caproni: miracidia and cercariae use different signals to identify the same snail species. Parasitology, 120: 479-486.
108. Halton, D.W., and Gustafsson, M.K.S. 1996. Functional morphology of the platyhelminth nervous system. Parasitology, 113(Suppl.): S41-S72.
109. Halton, D.W., Shaw, C., and Maule, A.G. 1997. Trematode neurobiology. In Advances in trematode biology. Edited by B. Fried and T.K. Graczyk. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton. Fla. pp. 345-382.
110. Hamilton, W.D., and Zuk, M. 1982. Heritable time fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Science (Wash., D.C.), 218: 384-387.
111. Harman, W.N. 1977. Benthic substrates: their effect on fresh water mollusca. Ecology, 53: 271-277.
112. Haselwood, G.A.D. 1978. The biological importance of bile salts. Frontiers in biology. North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
113. Hasler, A.D. 1960. Guideposts of migrating fishes. Science (Wash., D.C.), 132: 785-792.
114. Hendrickson, G.L., and Kingston, N. 1974. Cercaria laramiensis sp.n., a freshwater zygocercous cercaria from Physa gyrina Say, with a discussion of cercarial aggregation. J. Parasitol. 60: 777-781.
115. Heyneman, D. 1966. Successful infection with larval echinostomes surgically implanted into the body cavity of the normal snail host. Exp. Parasitol. 18: 220-223.
116. Hoffman, G.L., and Hoyme, J.B. 1958. The experimental histopathology of the "tumor" on the brain of the stickleback caused by Diplostomum baeri eucaliae Hoffman and Hundley, 1957 (Trematoda: Strigeoidea). J. Parasitol. 44: 374-378.
117. Hohorst, W., and Graefe, G. 1961. Ameisen-obligatorische Zwischenwirte des Lanzettegels (Dicrocoelium dendriticum). Naturwissenschaften, 48: 229-230.
118. Houck, L.D., and Drickamer, L.C. 1996. Foundations of animal behavior. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
119. Hoyle, G., Williams, N., and Phillips, C. 1986. Functional mophology of insect neuronal cell-surface/glial contacts: the trophospongium. J. Comp. Neurol. 246: 113-128.
120. Hudson, P.I., Dobson, A.P., and Newborn, D. 1998. Prevention of population cycles by parasite removal. Science (Wash., D.C.), 282: 2256-2258.
121. Hutterer, E., Kläver, S., Wegner, M., and Haas, W. 1992. Snails as intermediate hosts: mechanisms of host finding in cercariae. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Abstr. 325: 43.
122. Ingle, D. 1983. Brain mechanisms of visual localisation in frogs and toads. In Advances in vertebrate neuroethology. Edited by J.-P. Ewert, R.R. Capranica, and D. Ingle. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 177-226.
123. Irwin, S.W.B. 1983. In vitro excystment of the metacercariae of Maritrema arenaria (Digenea: Microphallidae). Int. J. Parasitol. 13: 191-196.
124. Jennings, H.S. 1906. Behavior of the lower organisms. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
125. Kagan, I.G. 1952. Further contributions to the life history of Neoleucochloridium problematicum (Magath, 1920) new comb. (Trematoda: Brachylaematidae). Trans. Am. Microbiol. Soc. 71: 20-44.
126. Kalbe, M., Haberi, B., and Haas, W. 1997. Miracidial host-finding in Fasciola hepatica and Trichobilharzia ocellata is stimulated by species specific glycoconjugates released from the host snails. Parasitol. Res. 83: 806-812.
127. Karr, J.R. 1991. Biological monitoring and environmental assessment: a conceptual framework. Environ. Manag. 11: 249-256.
128. Karr, J.R. 1999. Biological integrity: a long-neglected aspect of water resource management. Ecol. Appl. 1: 66-84.
129. Kassim, O., and Gilbertson, D.E. 1976. Hatching of Schistosoma mansoni: eggs and observations on motility of miracidia. J. Parasitol. 62: 715-720.
130. Kearns, G.C. 1998. Parasitism and the platyhelminths. Chapman and Hall, London.
131. Kemp, W.M., and Devine, D.R. 1982. Behavioral cues in trematode life cycles. In Cues that influence behavior of internal parasites. Edited by W.S. Bailey. United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, La. pp. 67-84.
132. Kendall, S.B., and McCullough, F.S. 1951. The emergence of the cercariae of Fasciola hepatica from the snail Limnaea truncatula. J. Helminthol. 25: 77-92.
133. Kennedy, M.J. 1979. The responses of miracidia and cercariae of Bunodera mediovitellata (Trematoda: Allocreadiidae) to light and gravity. Can. J. Zool. 57: 603-609.
134. Keshavarz-Valian, H., and Nollen, P.M. 1980. Responses of Philophthalmus gralli miracidia to gravity and light. J. Parasitol. 67: 527-530.
135. Koie, M. 1975. On the morphology and life-history of Opechona bacillaris (Molin, 1859) Looss, 1907 (Trematoda, Lepocreadiidae). Ophelia, 13: 63-86.
136. Koopowitz, H. 1974. Some aspects of the physiology and organization of the nerve plexus in polyclad flatworms. In Biology of turbellaria. Edited by N.W. Riser and M.P. Morse. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. pp. 198-212.
137. Koopowitz, H. 1982. Free-living platyhelminthes. In Electrical conduction and behavior in 'simple' invertebrates. Edited by G.A.B. Shelton. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 359-392.
138. Kramer, D.L., and McLaughlin, R.L. 2001. The behavioral ecology of intermittent locomotion. Am. Zool. 41: 137-153.
139. Krause, J., and Godin, J. 1994. Influence of parasitism on the shoaling of banded killifish, Fundulus diaphanus. Can. J. Zool. 72: 1775-1779.
140. Krebs, J.R., and Davies, N.B. 1989. Behavioral ecology. An evolutionary approach. Blackwell, Oxford.
141. Krull, W.H. 1931. Life history studies on two frog lung flukes, Pneumonoeces medioplexus and Pneumobites parviplexus. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 50: 215-277.
142. Krull, W.H., and Price, H.F. 1932. Studies on the life history of Diplodiscus temperatus Stafford from the frog. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 237: 1-38.
143. Kuris, A.M. 1990. Guild structure of larval trematodes in molluscan hosts: prevalence, dominance and significance of competition. In Parasite communities: patterns and processes. Edited by G.W. Esch, A.O. Bush, and J.M. Aho. Chapman and Hall, New York. pp. 69-100.
144. Kuris, A.M., and Lafferty, K.D. 1994. Community structure: larval trematodes in snail hosts. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 25: 189-217.
145. Lackie, A.M. 1975. The activation of infective stages on endoparasites of vertebrates. Biol. Rev. 50: 285-323.
146. Lafferty, K.D. 2002. Interspecific interactions in trematode communities. In Parasites and behaviour. Edited by M.V.K. Sukhdeo. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp. 153-169.
147. Lafferty, K.D., and Morris, A.K. 1996. Altered behavior of parasitized killifish increases susceptibility to predation by bird final hosts. Ecology, 77: 1390-1397.
148. Lafferty, K.D., Sammond, D.T., and Kuris, A.M. 1994. Analysis of larval trematode communities. Ecology, 75: 2275-2285.
149. Laing, J. 1937. Host finding by insect parasites. I. Observations on the finding of hosts by Alysia manducator, Mormoniella vitropennis and Trichogramma evanescens. J. Anim. Ecol. 6: 298-317.
150. La Rue, G.R. 1951. Host parasite relations among the digenetic trematodes. J. Parasitol. 37: 333-342.
151. Lemly, A.D., and Esch, G.W. 1984. Population biology of the trematode Uvulifer ambloplitis (Hughes, 1927) in juvenile blue-gill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, and largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides. J. Parasitol. 70: 466-474.
152. Leuckart, K.G.F. 1894. Die Parasiten des Menschen und die von ihnen Lerruhrenden Krankheiten. Part 5. Vol. 1. Verlagshandlung, Leipzig, Germany.
153. Lewis, E.E., Campbell, J.F., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 2002. The behavioural ecology of parasites. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK.
154. Lewis, M.C., Welsford, I.G., and Uglem, G.L. 1989. Cercarial emergence of Proterometra macrostoma and P. edneyi (Digenea: Azygiidae): contrasting responses to light:dark cycling. Parasitology, 99: 215-223.
155. Lewis, P.D. 1974. Helminths of terrestrial molluscs in Nebraska. II. Life cycle of Leucochloridium variae McIntosh, 1932 (Digenea: Leucochloridiidae). J. Parasitol. 60: 251-255.
156. Lie, K.J., Basch, P.F., and Umathevy, T. 1965. Antagonism between two species of larval trematodes in the same snail. Nature (Lond.), 206: 422-423.
157. Lim, H.K., and Heyneman, D. 1972. Intramolluscan inter-trematode antagonism: a review of factors influencing the host-parasite system and its possible role in biological control. Adv. Parasitol. 10: 191-268.
158. Lively, C. 1987. Evidence from a New Zealand snail for the maintenance of sex by parasitism. Nature (Lond.), 328: 519-521.
159. Lorenz, K.Z., and Tinbergen, N. 1938. Taxis und Instinkthandlung in der Eirollbewegung der Graugans I. Z. Tierpsychol. 2: 1-29.
160. Lorenz, K.Z., and Tinbergen, N. 1957. Taxis and instinct. In Instinctive behavior; the development of a modern concept. Edited by C.H. Schiller. International Universities Press, New York. pp. 176-208.
161. LoVerde, P.T. 1975. Scanning electron microscope observations on the miracidium of Schistosoma. Int. J. Parasitol. 5: 95-97.
162. Loy, C., Motzel, W., and Haas, W. 2001. Photo- and geo-orientation by Echinostome cercariae results in habitat selection. J. Parasitol. 87: 505-509.
163. MacInnis, A.J. 1965. Responses of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia to chemical attractants. J. Parasitol. 51: 731-746.
164. MacInnis, A.J. 1969. Identification of chemical triggering cercarial penetration responses of Schistosoma mansoni. Nature (Lond.), 224: 1221-1222.
165. MacInnis, A.J. 1976. How parasites find hosts. Some thoughts on the inception of host-parasite integration. In Ecological aspects of parasitology. Edited by C.R. Kennedy. North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam. pp. 3-20.
166. MacInnis, A.J., Bethel, W.M., and Cornford, E.M. 1974. Identification of chemicals of snail origin that attract Schistosoma mansoni miracidia. Nature (Lond.), 248: 361-363.
167. Mackie, G.O., Meech, R.W. 2000. Central circuitry in the jellyfish Aglantha digitale. III: The motor giant rootlet pathway and the pacemaker system. J. Exp. Biol. 203: 1797-1807.
168. Magdych, W.P. 1984. Salinity stresses along a complex river continuum: effects on mayfly (Ephemeroptera) distributions. Ecology, 65: 1662-1672.
169. Maldonado, J.F. 1945. The life cycle of Tamerlania bragai Santos 1934 (Eucotylidae), a kidney fluke of domestic pigeons. J. Parasitol. 31: 306-314.
170. Martin, W.E. 1968. Cercaria gorgonocephala Ward, 1916, a zygocercous species in northwestern United States. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 87: 472-476.
171. Mason, P.R., and Fripp, P.J. 1976. Analysis of the movements of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia using dark-ground photography. J. Parasitol. 62: 721-727.
172. McCarthy, H.O., Fitzpatrick, S., and Irwin, S.W.B. 2002. Life history and life cycles: production and behavior of trematode cercariae in relation to host exploittion and next-host characteristics. J. Parasitol. 88: 910-918.
173. McCoy, O.R. 1935. The physiology of helminth parasites. Physiol. Revs. 15: 221-240.
174. McDaniel, J.S. 1966. Excystment of Crytocotyle lingua metacercariae. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole), 130: 369-377.
175. McMahon, J.E. 1976. Circadian rhythm in Schistosoma haematobium egg excretion. Int. J. Parasitol. 6: 373-377.
176. McMichael-Phillips, D.F., Lewis, J.W., and Thorndyke, M.C. 1996. The distribution of neuroactive substances within the cercaria of Sanguinicola inermis. J. Helminthol. 70: 309-317.
177. Miller, P., and Wilson, R.A. 1978. Migration of the schistosomula of Schistosoma mansoni from skin to lungs. Parasitology, 77: 281-302.
178. Mitchell, J.B. 1973a. Gorgoderina vitelliloba (T rematoda: Gorgoderidae) in its definitive host Rana temporaria. Int. J. Parasitol. 3: 539-544.
179. Mitchell, J.B. 1973b. The effect of temperature on the development of Gorgoderina vitelliloba in Rana temporaria. Int. J. Parasitol. 3: 545-548.
180. 2- Konzentrationen. Z. Parasitenkd. 47: 35-43.
181. Montgomerie, R.F. 1928. Observations of artificial infestation of sheep with Fasciola hepatica and on a phase in the development of the parasite. J. Helminthol. 16: 71-130.
182. Moore, J. 2002. Parasites and the behavior of animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
183. Moore, J., and Gotelli, N.J. 1990. Phylogenetic perspective on the evolution of altered host behaviours: a critical look at the manipulation hypothesis. In Parasitism and host behaviour. Edited by C.J. Barnard, and J.M. Behnke. Taylor and Francis, London. pp. 193-233.
184. Najarian, H. 1954. Developmental stages in the life cycle of Echinoparyphium flexum (Linton, 1892) Dietz, 1910 (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae). J. Morphol. 94: 165-197.
185. Nassi, H., Pointier, J.P., and Golvna, Y.L. 1979. Bilan diun essai de contrôle de Biomphalaria glabrata en Guadalupe à l'aide d'un trématode stérilisant. Ann. Parasitol. 52: 277-323.
186. Neuhaus, W. 1952. Biologie und Entwicklung von Trichobilharzia szidati n.sp. (Trematoda, Schistosomatidae), einem Erreger von Dermatitis beim Menschen. Z. Parasitenkd. 15: 203-266.
187. Niewiadomska, K., Czubaj, A., and Moczon, T. 1996. Cholinergic and aminergic nervous systems in developing cercariae and metacercariae of Diplostomum pseudospathaceum Niewiadomska, 1984 (Digenea). Int. J. Parasitol. 26: 161-168.
188. Nollen, P.M. 1968. Autoradiographic studies on reproduction in Philophthalmus megalurus (Cort, 1914) (Trematoda). J. Parasitol. 54: 43-48.
189. Nollen, P.M. 1983. The effects of crowding on adults of Philophthalmus gralli (Trematoda) grown in chickens. J. Parasitol. 69: 196-199.
190. Nollen, P.M. 1990. Chemosensitivity of Philophthalmus megalurus (Trematoda) miracidia. J. Parasitol. 76: 439-440.
191. Nollen, P.M., and Kanev, I. 1995. The taxonomy and biology of philophthalmid eyeflukes. Adv. Parasitol. 36: 206-269.
192. Nollen, P.M., and Murray, H.D. 1978. Philophthalmus gralli: identification, growth characteristics, and treatment of an Oriental eyefluke of birds introduced into the continental United States. J. Parasitol. 64: 178-180.
193. Owen, S.F., Barber, I., and Hart, P.J.B. 1993. Low level infection by eye fluke, Diplostomum spp., affects the vision of three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus. J. Fish Biol. 42: 803-806.
194. Pax, R.A., and Bennett, J.L. 1991. Neurobiology of parasitic platyhelminths: possible solutions to the problems of correlating structure with function. Parasitology, 102(Suppl.): S31-S40.
195. Pax, R.A., and Bennett, J.L. 1992. Neurobiology of parasitic flatworms: how much "neuro" in the biology? J. Parasitol. 78: 194-205.
196. Pelkwijk, J.J. ter, and Tinbergen, N. 1937. Eine reizbiologisch Analyse einiger Verhaltensweisen von Gasterosteus aculeatus L. Z. Tierpsychol. 1: 193-200.
197. Plempel, von M., Gounert, R., and Federmann, M. 1966. Versuche zur wirtsfindung von Miracidien. Proc. 1st Int. Congr. Parasitol. 1: 32.
198. Plorin, G.G., and Gilbertson, D.E. 1981. Behavior of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia upon contacting solid surfaces. J. Parasitol. 67: 727-728.
199. Poulin, R. 1994. The evolution of parasite manipulation of host behaviour: a theoretical analysis. Parasitology, 109(Suppl.): S109-S118.
200. Poulin, R. 1998. Evolutionary ecology of parasites: from individuals to communities. Chapman and Hall, London.
201. Poulin, R. 2001. Evolutionary ecology of parasites. Chapman and Hall, London.
202. Prah, S.K., and James, C. 1977. The influence of physical factors on the survival and infectivity of miracidia of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium. 1. Effect of temperature and ultraviolet light. J. Helminthol. 51: 73-85.
203. Prechel, D.P., and Nollen, P.M. 1979. The effects of miracidial aging and dilution of snail-conditioned water on responses of miracidia of Megalodiscus temperatus. J. Parasitol. 65: 446-450.
204. Prior, D.J., and Uglem, G.L. 1979. Behavioural and physiological aspects of swimming in cercariae of the digenetic trematode, Proterometra macrostoma. J. Exp. Biol. 83: 239-247.
205. Probert, A.J., and Erasmus, D.A. 1965. The migration of Cercaria X Baylis (strigeida) within the molluscan intermediate host Lymnaea stagnalis. Parasitology, 55: 77-92.
206. Ratanarat, C. 1968. Untersuchungen über den Wanderweg augenbewohnender Diplostomatiden - Larven (Diplostomum spathaceum und Posthodiplostomum brevicaudatum) in Fischen. Ph.D. thesis, Eberhard Karlson Universität, Tübingen, Germany.
207. Ratanarat-Brockelman, C. 1974. Migration of Diplostomum spathaceum (Trematoda) in the fish intermediate host. Z. Parasitenkd. 43: 123-134.
208. Ratcliffe, L.H. 1968. Hatching of Dicrocoelium lanceolatum egg. Exp. Parasitol. 23: 67-78.
209. Raymond, K., and Probert, A.J. 1991. The daily cercarial emission rhythm of Schistosoma margrebowiei with particular reference to dark period stimuli. J. Helminthol. 65: 159-168.
210. Rea, J.G., and Irwin, S.W.B. 1992. The effects of computer-controlled shadow stimuli on the success of cercarial transmission by Cryptocotyle lingua (Digenea: Heterophyidae). Parasitology, 105: 243-246.
211. Rea, J.G., and Irwin, S.W.B. 1994. The ecology of host-finding behaviour and parasite transmission: past and future perspectives. Parasitology, 109(Suppl.): S31-S39.
212. Rees, F.G. 1934. Cercaria patellae Lebour, 1911, and its effect on the digestive gland and gonads of Patella vulgata. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1: 45-53.
213. Rees, G. 1955. The adult and diplostomulum stage (Diplostomulum phoxini (Faust)) of Diplostomum pelmatoides Dubois and an experimental demonstration of part of the life cycle. Parasitology, 45: 295-312.
214. Rees, G. 1957. Cercaria diplostomi phoxini (Faust), a furcocercaria which develops into Diplostomulum phoxini in the brain of the minnow. Parasitology, 47: 126-137.
215. Rees, G. 1971. Locomotion of the cercaria of Parorchis acanthus Nicoll and the ultrastructure of the tail. Parasitology, 62: 489-503.
216. Reisenger, E., and Graak, B. 1962. Untersuchungen an Codonocephalus (Trematoda Digenea: Strigeidae), Nervensystem und Paranephridialer Plexus. Z. Parasitenkd. 22: 1-42.
217. Richard, J. 1971. La chéotaxie des cercaires. Valeur systématique et phylétique. Mem. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. Ser. A Zool. 67: 1-179.
218. Roberts, T.M., Ward, S., and Chernin, E. 1979. Behavioural responses of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia in concentration gradients of snail conditioned water. J. Parasitol. 65: 41-49.
219. Rohde, K. 1968a. The nervous systems of Multicotyle purvisi Dawes, 1941 (Aspidogastrea) and Diaschistorchis multitesticularis Rohde, 1962 (Digenea). Z. Parasitenkd. 30: 78-94.
220. Rohde, K. 1968b. Das Nervensystem der Cercarie von Catatropis indica Srivastava, 1935 (Digenea: Notocotylidae) und der geschlechtsreifen Form von Diaschistorchis multitesticularis Rohde, 1962 (Digenea: Pronocephalidae). Z. Morphol. Oekol. Tiere, 62: 77-102.
221. Romig, T., Lucius, R., and Frank, W. 1980. Cerebral larvae in the second intermediate host of Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Rudolphi, 1819) and Dicrocoelium hospes Looss, 1907 (Trematodes, Dircocoeliidae). Z. Parasitenkd. 63: 277-286.
222. Rothschild, M. 1939. A note on the life cycle of Cryptocotyle lingua (Creeplin) 1825 (Trematoda). Novit. Zool. 41: 178-180.
223. Rowan, W.B. 1956. The mode of hatching of the egg of Fasciola hepatica. Exp. Parasitol. 5: 118-137.
224. Saladin, K.S. 1979. Behavioral parasitology and perspectives on miracidial host-finding. Z. Parasitenkd. 60: 197-210.
225. Saladin, K.S. 1980. Behavioral manifestations of photosensitivity in cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni (Digenea: Schistosomatidae). Ph.D. thesis, Florida State University, Tallahassee. Abstract No. 40. p. 7.
226. Salt, G. 1935. Experimental studies in insect parasitism. III. Host selection. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 117: 423-435.
227. Samuelson, J.C., Quinn, J.J., and Caulfield, J.P. 1984. Hatching, chemokinesis and transformation of miracidia of Schistosoma mansoni. J. Parasitol. 70: 321-331.
228. Saxena, S.K. 1981. Studies on the life history of Philophthalmus lucknowensis Baugh 1962. II. Hatching and miracidium. Rev. Iber. Parasitol. 41: 493-530.
229. Schell, S.C. 1970. The trematodes. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa.
230. Schmidt, K.A., and Fried, B. 1996. Emergence of cercariae of Echinostoma trivolvis from Helisoma trivolvis under different conditions. J. Parasitol. 82: 674-676.
231. Schneider, G., and Hohorst, W. 1971. Wanderung der Metacercarien des Lanzett-Egels in Ameisen. Naaturwissenschaften, 58: 327-328.
232. Shiff, C.J. 1969. Influence of light and depth on localization of Bulinus (Physopsis) globusus by miracidia of Schistosoma haematobium. J. Parasitol. 55: 108-110.
233. Shiff, C.J. 1974. Seasonal factors influencing the location of Bulinus (Physopsis) globusus by miracidia of Schistosoma haematobium. J. Parasitol. 60: 578-583.
234. Shiff, C.J., and Kriel, R.L. 1970. A water soluble product of Bulinus (Physopsis) globosus attractive to Schistosoma haematobium miracidia. J. Parasitol. 56: 281-286.
235. Short, R.B., and Cartrett, M.L. 1973. Argentophilic "papillae" of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae. J. Parasitol. 59: 1041-1059.
236. Short, R.B., and Gagne, H.T. 1975. Fine structure of a possible photoreceptor in cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni. J. Parasitol. 61: 69-74.
237. Silk, M.H., and Spence, I.M. 1969. Ultrastructural studies of the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni. III. The nerve tissue and sensory structures. S. Afr. J. Med. Sci. 34: 93-104.
238. Skuce, P.J., Johnston, C.F., Fairweather, I., Halton, D.W., and Shaw, C. 1990. A confocal scanning laser microscope study of peptidergic and serotonergic components of the nervous system in larval Schistosoma mansoni. Parasitology, 101: 227-234.
239. Smyth, J.D. 1966. The physiology of trematodes. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London.
240. Smyth, J.D., and Halton, D.W. 1983. The physiology of trematodes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
241. Solis-Soto, J.M., and de Jong-Brink, M. 1994. Immunocytochemical study on biologically active neurosubstances in daughter sporocysts and cercarciae of Trichobilharzia ocellata and Schistosoma mansoni. Parasitology, 108: 301-311.
242. Solis-Soto, J.M., and de Jong-Brink, M. 1995. An immunocytochemistry study comparing the occurrence of neuroactive substances in the nervous system of cercariae and metacercariae of the eye fluke Diplostomum spathacum. Parasitol. Res. 81: 553-559.
243. Sommerville, R.I., and Rogers, W.P. 1987. The nature and action of host signals. Adv. Parasitol. 26: 239-293.
244. Sorensen, R.E., and Minchella, D.J. 2001. Snail-trematode life history interactions: past trends and future directions. Parasitology, 123(Suppl.): S3-S18.
245. Sousa, W.P. 1992. Interspecific interactions among larval trematode parasites of freshwater and marine snails. Am. Zool. 32: 583-592.
246. Sponholtz, J.D., and Short, R.B. 1976. Schistosoma mansoni miracidia: stimulation by calcium and magnesium. J. Parasitol. 62: 155-157.
247. Stabrowski, A., and Nollen, P.M. 1985. The responses of Philophthalmus gralli and Philophthalmus megalaunis miracidia to light, gravity and magnetic fields. Int. J. Parasitol. 15: 551-555.
248. Steven, D.M. 1963. The dermal light sense. Biol. Rev. 38: 204-240.
249. Stibbs, H.H., Chernin, E., Ward, S., and Karnovsky, M.L. 1976. Magnesium emitted by snails alters the swimming behaviour of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia. Nature (Lond.), 260: 702-703.
250. Stirewalt, M.A. 1963. Chemical biology of secretions of larval helminths. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 113: 36-53.
251. Stirewalt, M.A. 1966. Skin penetration mechanisms of helminths. In Biology of parasites. Edited by E.J.L. Soulsby. Academic Press, New York. pp. 41-57.
252. Stirewalt, M.A., and Dorsey, C.H. 1974. Schistosoma mansoni: cercarial penetration of host epidermis at the ultrastructural level. Exp. Parasitol. 35: 1-15.
253. Stirewalt, M.A., and Kruidener, F.J. 1961. Activity of the acetabular secretory apparatus of cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni under experimental conditions. Exp. Parasitol. 11: 191-211.
254. Stirewalt, M.A., and Uy, A. 1969. Schistosoma mansoni: cercarial penetrations and schistosomule collection in an in vivo system. Exp. Parasitol. 26: 17-28.
255. Stunkard, H.W. 1930. The life history of Cryptocotyle lingua (Creplin), with notes of the physiology of the metacercariae. J. Morphol. Physiol. 50: 143-191.
256. Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1990. Habitat selection by helminths: a hypothesis. Parasitol. Today, 6: 234-237.
257. Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1992a. Behavior of flatworms in vivo. The role of the brain. J. Parasitol. 78: 231-242.
258. Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1992b. Hymenolepis diminuta: The effects of decerebration of Hymenolepis diminuta on thermal responses. Exp. Parasitol. 74: 300-306.
259. Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1994. Parasites and behaviour. In Parasites and behaviour. Edited by M.V.K. Sukhdeo. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp. S1.
260. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Kerr, M. 1992. Behavioral adaptation of a tapeworm to its environment. Parasitology, 104: 331-336
261. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Mettrick, D.F. 1986. The behaviour of juvenile Fasciola hepatica. J. Parasitol. 72: 492-497.
262. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Mettrick, D.F. 1987. Parasite behaviour: understanding platyhelminth responses. Adv. Parasitol. 26: 74-144.
263. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Sukhdeo, S.C. 1989. Gastrointestinal hormones: environmental cues for Fasciola hepatica. Parasitology, 98: 239-243.
264. Sukhdeo, S.C., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1988. Immunohistochemical and electrocheemical detection of serotonin in the nervous system of Fasciola hepatica, a parasitic flatworm. Brain Res. 463: 57-62.
265. Sukhdeo, S.C., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1990. Ontogenetic development of the brain of Fasciola hepatica (Platyhelminthes). Tissue Cell, 22: 39-50.
266. Sukhdeo, S.C., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1994a. Mesenchyme cell of Fasciola hepatica (Platyhelminthes): primitive glia? Tissue Cell, 26: 123-131.
267. Sukhdeo, S.C., and Sukhdeo, M.V.K. 1994b. FMRFamide-related peptides in Hymenolepis diminuta: immunohistochemistry and radioimmunoassay. Parasitol. Res. 80: 374-380.
268. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Sukhdeo, S.C. 1994c. Optimal habitat selection by helminths within the host environment. Parasitology, 109(Suppl.): S41-S54.
269. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Sukhdeo, S.C. 2002. Fixed behaviours and migration in parasitic flatworms. Int. J. Parasitol. 32: 329-342.
270. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., Sukhdeo, S.C., and Mettrick, D.F. 1987. Site-finding behaviour of Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda), a parasitic flatworm. Behaviour, 103: 174-186.
271. Sukhdeo, S.C., Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Mettrick, D.F. 1988a. Histochemical localization of acetylcholinesterase in the cerebral ganglia of Fasciola hepatica, a parasitic flatworm. J. Parasitol. 75: 64-72.
272. Sukhdeo, S.C., Sukhdeo, M.V.K., and Mettrick, D.F. 1988b. Neurocytology of the cerebral ganglia of Fasciola hepatica (Platyhelminthes). J. Comp. Neurol. 278: 337-343.
273. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., Sangster, N.C., and Mettrick, D.F. 1988c. Permanent feeding sites for adult Fasciola hepatica in rabbits? Int. J. Parasitol. 18: 509-512.
274. Sukhdeo, M.V.K., Sukhdeo, S.C., and Bansemir, A.D. 2002. Interactions between intestinal nematodes and vertebrate hosts. In The behavioural ecology of parasites. Edited by E.E. Lewis, J.F. Campbell and M.V.K. Sukhdeo. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK. pp. 223-242.
275. Szidat, L. 1969. Structure, development and behaviour of new strigeatoid metacercariae from subtropical fishes of South America. J. Fish. Res. Board Com. 26: 753-786.
276. Takahashi, T., Mori, K., and Shigeta, Y. 1961. Phototactic, thermotactic and geotactic responses of miracidia of Schistosoma japonicum. Jpn. J. Parasitol. 10: 686-691.
277. Théron, A. 1984. Early and late shedding patterns of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae: ecological significance in transmission to human and murine hosts. J. Parasitol. 70: 652-655.
278. Théron, A. 1989. Hybrids between Schistosoma mansoni and S. rodhaini: characterization by cercarial emergence rhythms. Parasitology, 99: 225-228.
279. Théron, A., Mouahid, G., and Mone, H. 1977. Schistosoma mansoni: Cercarial shedding patterns form a mixed infection of Biomphalaria glabrata with two (early and late) chronobiological variants. Parasitol. Res. 83: 356-358.
280. Thomas, A.P. 1883. The life history of the liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica). Q. J. Microsc. Sci. 223: 99-1213.
281. Thorson, R.E., Digenis, G.A., Berntzen, A., and Konyalian, A. 1968. Biological activities of various lipid fractions from Echinococcus granulosus scolices on in vitro cultures of Hymenolepis diminuta. J. Parasitol. 54: 970-973.
282. Tinbergen, N., and Perdeck, A.C. 1950. On the stimulus situation releasing the begging response in the newly hatched Herring Gull chick (Larus a. argentatus Pontopp.). Behaviour, 3: 1-38.
283. Toledo, R., Muñoz-antoli, C., Pérez, M., and Esteban, J.-G. 1999. Miracidial infectivity of Hypoderaeum conoideum (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae): differential susceptibility of two lymnaeid species. Parasitol. Res. 85: 212-215.
284. Turner, A.M. 1996. Freshwater snails alter habitat use in response to predation. Anim. Behav. 51: 747-756.
285. Turlings, T.C.J., Wäckers, F.L., Vet, L.E.M., Lewis, W.J., and Tumlinson, J.H. 1993. Learning of host-finding cues by Hymenopterous parasitoids. In Insect learning: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Edited by D.R. Papaj and A.C. Lewis. Chapman and Hall, New York. pp. 71-78.
286. Uglem, G.L., and Prior, D.J. 1983. Control of swimming in cercariae of Proterometra macrostoma (Digenea). J. Parasitol. 69: 866-870.
287. Ulmer, M.J. 1951. Postharmostoumu helicis (Leidy, 1847) Robinson 1949 (Trematoda), its life history and a revision of the subfamily Brachylaeminae. I. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 70: 189-238.
288. Ulmer, M.J. 1952. Morphological features of Brachylaima virginianum metacercariae (Trematoda: Brachylaimatidae), and migration route of cercariae in the 2nd intermediate host. Iowa State J. Sci. 27: 91-103.
289. Ulmer, M.J. 1953. Studies on the nervous system of Posthamostomum helicus (Leidy 1847) Robinson, 1949 (Trematoda: Brachylaimatidae). Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 72: 370-374.
290. Ulmer, M.J. 1971. Site-finding behaviour in helminths in intermediate and definitive hosts. In Ecology and physiology of parasites. Edited by A.M. Fallis. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont. pp. 123-160.
291. Upatham, E.S. 1972a. Effect of water depth on the infection of Biomphalaria glabrata by miracidia of St. Lucian Schistosoma mansoni under laboratory and field conditions. J. Helminthol. 46: 317-325.
292. Upatham, E.S. 1972b. Exposure of caged Biomphalaria glabrata (Say) to investigate dispersion of miracidia of Schistosoma mansoni Sambon in outdoor habitats in St. Lucia. J. Helminthol. 46: 297-306.
293. van de Roemer, A., and Haas, W. 1984. Die Penetration deer Cercarie von Trichobilharzia ocellat. Ph.D. thesis, J.W. Goethe Universität, Frankfurt, Germany.
294. van Marck, E.A.E., and Gigasse, P.L. 1978. Effect of total portal vein ligation on the maturation of Schistosoma mansoni in mice. Ann. Soc. Belge Med. 58: 157-158.
295. Vet, L.E.M., Lewis, W.J., Papaj, D.R., and van Lenteren, J.C. 1990. A variable-response model for parasitoid foraging behaviour. J. Insect Behav. 3: 471-490.
296. Vet, L.E.M., Lewis, W.J., and Cardé, R.T. 1995. Parasitoid foraging and learning. In Chemical ecology of insects. Edited by R.T. Cardé and W.J. Bell. Chapman and Hall, New York.
297. Vet, L.E.M., Hemerik, L., Visser, M.E., and Wäckers, F.L. 2002. Flexibility in host-search and patch-use strategies of insect parasitoids. In The behavioural ecology of parasites. Edited by E.E. Lewis, J.F. Campbell, and MV.K. Sukhdeo. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK. pp. 39-64.
298. von Frisch, K. 1950. Bees - their vision, chemical senses and language. Cornell University Press, New York.
299. von Uexküll, J. 1934. Streifzge durch die Unwelten von Tieren und Menschen [A stroll through the worlds of animal and men]. In Instinctive behavior. Edited by C.H. Schiller. International Universities Press, New York. pp. 5-80.
300. Wagner, A. 1960. Stimulation of Schistosomatium douthitti cercariae to penetrate their host. Diss. Abstr. 20: 3449.
301. Webbe, G. 1966. The effect of water velocities on the infection of Biomphalaria sudanica tanganycencis exposed to different numbers of Schistosoma mansoni miracidia. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 60: 85-89.
302. Wehner, R. 1981. Spatial vision in arthropods. In Handbook of sensory physiology. Edited by H. Autrum. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 287-616.
303. West, A.F. 1961. Studies on the biology of Philophthalmus gralli Mathis and Leger, 1910 (Trematoda: Digenea). Am. Midl. Nat. 66: 363-383.
304. Wheater, P.R., and Wilson, R.A. 1979. Schistosoma mansoni: a histological study of migration in the laboratory mouse. Parasitology, 75: 49-62.
305. Whitfield, P.J., Anderson, R.M., and Bundy, D.A.P. 1977. Experimental investigations on the behaviour of the cercariae of an extoparasitic digenean Transversotrema patialense: general activity patterns. Parasitology, 75: 9-30.
306. Whyte, S.K., Secombes, C.J., and Chappell, L.H. 1991. Studies on the infectivity of Diplostomum spathaceum in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J. Helminthol. 65: 169-178.
307. Wikel, S.K., and Bogitsh, B.J. 1974. Schistosoma mansoni: penetration apparatus and epidermis of the miracidium. Exp. Parasitol. 36: 342-354.
308. Wilks, N.B. 1967. Lungs to liver migration of schistosomes in the laboratory mouse. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 16: 599-605.
309. Wilson, R.A. 1987. Cercariae to liver worms: development and migration in the mammalian host. In The biology of schistosomes. Edited by D. Rollinson and A.J.G. Simpson. Academic Press, London. pp. 115-146.
310. Wilson, R.A., and Coulson, P.S. 1986. Schistosoma mansoni: dynamics of migration through the vascular system of the mouse. Parasitology, 92: 83-100.
311. Wilson, R.A., and Coulson, P.S. 1989. Lung-phase immunity to schistosomes: a new perspective on an old problem. Parasitol. Today, 5: 274-278.
312. Wilson, R.A., and Denison, J. 1970a. Studies on the activity of the miracidium of the common liver fluke Fasciola hepatica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 32: 301-313.
313. Wilson, R.A., and Denison, J. 1970b. Short chain fatty acids as stimulants of turning activity by the miracidium of Fasciola hepatica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 32: 511-517.
314. Wilson, R.A., Pullin, R., and Denison, J. 1971. An investigation of the mechanism of infection by digenetic trematodes: the penetration of the miracidium of Fasciola hepatica into its snail host Lymnaea truncatula. Parasitology, 63: 491-506.
315. Wilson, R.A., Draskan, R., Miller, P., and Lawson, J.R. 1978. Schistosoma mansoni: the activity and development of the schistosomulum during migration from the skin to the hepatic portal system. Parasitology, 77: 57-73.
316. Wright, C.A. 1959. Host location by trematode miracidia. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 53: 288-292.
317. Wright, C.A. 1971. Flukes and snails. Allen and Unwin, London.
318. Wright, D.G.S. 1974. Responses of the cercariae of Trichobilharzia ocellata to white light, monochromatic light, and irradiance reduction. Can. J. Zool. 52: 575-579.
319. Wright, D.G.S., and Ronald, K. 1972. Effect of amino acids and light on the behavior of miracidia of Schistosoma douthitti. Can. J. Zool. 50: 855-860.
320. Wright, D.G.S., Lavigne, D.M., and Ronald, K. 1972. Responses of Schistosoma douthitti (Cort 1914) to monochromatic light. Can. J. Zool. 50: 197-200.
321. Wykoff, D.E., and Lepes, T.J. 1957. Studies on Clonorchis sinensis. I. Observations on the route of migration in the definitive host. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 6: 1061-1065.
322. Yokogawa, M., Yoshimura, H., Sano, M., Okura, T., and Tsuji, M. 1962. The route of migration of the larva of Paragonimus westsermani in the final hosts. J. Parasitol. 48: 525-531.
323. Yokogawa, S., Cort, W.W., and Yokogawa, M. 1960. Paragonimus and paragonimiasis. Exp. Parasitol. 10: 81-205.
324. Yolles, T.K., Moore, D.V., and Meleney, H.E. 1949. Post cercarial development of Schistosoma mansoni in the rabbit and hamster after intraperitoneal and percutaneous infection. J. Parasitol. 35: 276-294.
325. Zurawski, T.H., Mousley, A., Mair, G.R., Brennan, G.P., Maule, A.G., Gelmar, M., and Halton, D.W. 2001. Immunomicroscopical observations on the nervous system of adult Eudiplozoon nipponicum (Monogenea: Diplozoidae). Int. J. Parasitol. 31: 783-792.