Where computer security meets national security

Ethics and Information Technology

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 61-73

  Nissenbaum, Helen ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Computer security; Cyber security; Securitization

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE EVALUATIONS; COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERINGS; COPENHAGEN; CYBER SECURITY; INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCIES; SECURITIZATION;

NATIONAL SECURITY; SECURITY SYSTEMS;

SECURITY OF DATA;

EID: 31144461818     PISSN: 13881957     EISSN: 15728439     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10676-005-4582-3     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. This article has been on the drawing boards for longer than I dare to admit. Along the way, many have helped its development by generously sharing their wisdom: James Der Derian, Niva Elkin-Koren, Ed Felten, Batya Friedman, Lene Hansen, audiences at CEPE, TPRC, the Yale Cybercrime and Digital Law Enforcement Conference, and Watson Institute's Symposium in Dis/Simulations of War and Peace," and University of Newcastle, Computer Science Department. Thanks, also, to Sam Howard-Spink for excellent editorial assistance.
2. L. Winner. Do Artifacts have Politics? The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986.
3. B. Pfaffenberger. "Technological Dramas" Science, Technology & Human, 17(3): 282-312, 1992
4. See at the project "Value in Technology Design: Democracy, Autonomy, and Justice," available at: [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/valuesindesign/];
5. B. Friedman, P.H. Kahn, Jr. and A. Borning, "A Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems", forthcoming. In P. Zhang and D. Galletta, editors, Human-Computer Interaction in Management Information Systems: Foundations. M.E. Sharpe, Inc, NY;
6. Camp I. Jean, "Design for Trust". In Rino Falcone, editor, Trust, Reputation and Security: Theories and Practice: Aamas 2002 International Workshop, Bologna, Italy, July 15, 2002: Selected and Invited Papers (Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003;
7. L.Jean Camp & Carlos Osorio, "Privacy Enhancing Technologies for Internet Commerce". In Trust in the Network Economy. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2002;
8. Flanagan, Howe and Nissenbaum (forthcoming);
9. H. Nissenbaum. "Will Security Enhance Trust Online, or Supplant It?" In M.R. Kramer and S.K. Cook, editors, Trust and Distrust in Organizations: Dilemmas and Approaches Volume VII in the Russell Sage Foundation Series on Trust. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 2004;
10. Benkler Y. and Nissenbaum H. (forthcoming), "Commons Based Peer Production and Virtue."
11. National Research Council, The Internet Under Crisis Conditions, (The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003);
12. Hennessy L. J, Patterson A. and Lin S. H. (eds.) (2003), Information Technology for Counterterrorism, (The National Academies Press, Washingtom D.C., 2003);
13. Baskerville R. (1993), "Information Systems Design Methods: Implications for Information Systems Development," 25(4) ACM Computing Surveys, pp. 375-414.
14. "Trust in Cyberspace," Committee on Information Systems Trustworthiness, National Research Council (1999) available at: [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/trust/];
15. see the society's dependability definition by the DIRC project, available at: [http://www.dirc.org.uk/overview/index.html].
16. Bendrath, R. "The American Cyber-Angst and the Real World-Any Link?" In R. Latham, editor, Bombs and Bandwidth, pp. 49-73. The New Press, New York, 2003.
17. According to the "The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace," Feb. 2003 (available at: http://www.us-cert.-gov/reading_room/cyberspace_strategy.pdf) cyber-attacks on U.S. information networks can have serious consequences such as disrupting critical operations, loss of revenue and intellectual property, or loss of life;
18. see also United State Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Testimony of Mr. Keith Lourdeau, FBI Deputy Assistant Director, Cyber Division, February 24, 2004 (available at: http://judiciary.senate.gov/testimony.cfm?id=1054&wit_id=2995).
19. R. Arthur. "Prohibition and Preemption," In 5 Legal Theory, pp. 235-263, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
20. R. Anderson. "Cryptography and Competition Policy-Issues with Issues with Trusted Computing." In Proceedings Workshop on Economics and Information Sector, pp. 1-11, 2003.
21. For a description of this approach to security studies, I have used B. Buzan, O. Wyer, J.D. Wilde and O. Waever, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., Boulder, 1997;
22. O. Waever, "Concepts of Security," Ph.D. dissertation. Institute of Political Science, University of Copenhagen, 1995.
23. B. Buzan, O. Wyer, J.D. Wilde and O. Waever, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, p. 32. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., Boulder, 1997.
24. J. Kelley, "Terror Groups Hide Behind Web Encryption," USA Today (February 6, 2001)
25. discussed in McCullagh D. (2001), "bin Laden: Steganography Master?" Wired News (February 7, 2001), available at: [http://www.wired.com/news/print/0,1294,41658,00.html].
26. R. Bendrath, "The American Cyber-Angst and the Real World - Any Link?" In Bombs and Bandwidth (2003) Robert Latham (ed.) (New York: The New Press), pp. 49-73.
27. Gaudin, S. "The Terrorist Network," NetworkWorld-Fusion (November 26, 2001). Available at: [http://www.nwfusion.com/research/2001/1126featside4.html].
28. D. Jehl and D. Rohde, "Captured Qaeda Figure Led Way To Information Behind Warning," The New York Times, 2004.
29. For example, the testimony of Jack Valenti, President and CEO Motion Picture Association of America, before the SubCommittee on Courts, the Internet, and Intellectual Property Committee on the Judiciary U.S. House of Representatives, "International Copyright Piracy: Links to Organized Crime and Terrorism" (March 13, 2003) available at: [http:// www.house.gov/judiciary/valenti031303.htm].
30. An official rendering of threats and vulnerabilities in the context of national security concerns can be seen in The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, February 2003, a report by President George W. Bush's Critical Infrastructure Protection Board (headed by Richard A. Clarke), especially the chapter, "Cyberspace Threats and Vulnerabilities: A Case for Action."
31. R. Bendrath. "The American Cyber-Angst and the Real World-Any Link?" In R. Latham, editor, Bombs and Bandwidth, p.56. New York, The New Press, 2003, quoting Admiral Thomas R. Wilson's comments during a hearing of Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, February 2001.
32. R. Bendrath. "The American Cyber-Angst and the Real World-Any Link?" In R. Latham, editor, Bombs and Bandwidth, p. 57. The New Press, New York, 2003.
33. K. Mitnick. "Hacker in Shackles," The Guardian (London), 1999.
34. H. Lene. "The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma and the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School," Millennium, 29(2): 285-306, 2000.
35. Derian. D.J. "The Value of Security: Hobbes, Marx, Nietzsche, and Baudrillard." In D. Campbell and M. Dillon (eds.), The Political Subject of Violence. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1993.
36. B. Buzan, O. Wyer, J.D. Wilde and O. Waever. Security: A New Framework for Analysis, p. 27. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., Boulder, 1997.
37. B. Buzan, O. Wyer, J.D. Wilde and O. Waever. Security: A New Framework for Analysis, especially pp.23-25. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., Boulder, 1997.
38. For more on the subject of government secrecy, see Rotenberg M. "Privacy and Secrecy after September 11." In Bombs and Bandwidth (Latham R. ed.) (The New Press, 2003), pp. 132-142.
39. The point is derived from Will Kymlika, "Justice and Security in the Accommodation of Minority Nationalism, Comparing East and West." Draft paper presented at Princeton University, 2001, especially pp. 16-21.
40. For a critical discussion of this practice, see Goodin (1982), Political Theory and Public Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Chapter 11, "The Priority of Defense."
41. A similar connection but with motion in the other direction is pointed out by Birnhak and Elkin-Koren in an important paper on the ways security concerns have allowed the state to re-enter governance of the Net by collaborating with private actors (Birnhack D. M. and Elkin-Koren N. (2003)), "The Invisible Handshake: The Reemergence of the State in the Digital Envitonment", 8 Virginia J. of L. & Tech, 6.
42. Attorney General John Ashcroft stressed the possible dangers to the society as a result of intellectual property infringement: "Intellectual property theft is a clear danger to our economy and the health, safety, and security of the American people." Attorney General John Ashcroft, Announces Recommendations of The Justice Department's Intellectual Property Task Force, October 12, 2004. available at: [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/AshcroftIPTF.htm]. The possible relation between security and intellectual property theft was recognized in the task force report itself: "... those who benefit most from intellectual property theft are criminals, and alarmingly, criminal organizations with possible ties to terrorism."
43. See U.S. Department of Justice, Report of the Department of Justice's Task Force on intellectual property, October 2004, p. 7. available at: [http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/IPTaskForceReport.pdf].
44. Evidence of disunity comes, for example, from the Federal District Court in Manhattan ruling in Doe v. Ashcroft, 334 F. Supp 2d, 471 (2004), striking down, on constitutional grounds, a section of the USA PATRIOT Act that would have allowed government security agencies to subpoena personal information from Internet Service Providers without having to obtain a court order.
45. Obviously, these are paradigmatic and designed to illustrate alternatives at two ends of a spectrum which offers many variations in between.
46. Discussions with Ed Felten greatly influenced the conception of this example.
47. Statement by Amit Yoran, Director National Cyber Security Division Department of Homeland Security, before the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security, February 24, 2004.
48. The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, Bush Administration, final draft released February 14, 2003 (Available at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/, November 24, 2004).
49. E. Lipton and E. Lightblau, "Online and Even Near Home, a New Front Is Opening in the Global Terror Battle," The New York Times, September 23, 2004, A12.
50. See for example the CIA and National Science Foundation joint project "Approaches to Combat Terrorism: Opportunities for Basic Research," aimed at finding ways to monitor on-line chat rooms. For more information about this project and additional ones visit EPIC website at: http://www.epic.org/privacy/wiretap/nsf_release.html.
51. See also the "EFF Analysis of the Cyber Security Enhancement Act," available at: http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Surveillance/ ?f=20020802_eff_csea_analysis.html.
52. B. Buzan, O. Wyer, J.D. Wilde and O. Waever. Security: A New Framework for Analysis, discussion on pp. 29-30. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., Boulder, 1997.
53. Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 (DMCA), Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860, Codified as 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201-1205; for commentary review see: Litman J. (1994), "The Exclusive Right to Read," 13 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L. J., 29;
54. Samuelson P. (1999), "Intellectual Property And The Digital Economy: Why The Anti-Circumvention Regulations Need To Be Revised," 14 Berkeley Tech. L. J. 519;
55. also, see the legislation: S. 2560, The International Inducement of Copyright Infringement Act of 2004 (The INDUCE Act)., presently "on hold".
56. "House Gives Final Approval to FY 2002 Commerce, Justice, State and Judiciary Spending Bill," CJIS Group News (November 14, 2001) available at: [http://www.cjisgroup.com/aboutCJIS/newsBudget111401.cfm]
57. L. Winner. Do Artifacts Have Politics? The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986.
58. See for example the attempt to create passenger profiling as part of the Secure Flight passenger prescreening program. The Transportation Security Administration has ordered airlines to turn over a month's worth of passenger data, which will allow the creation of passenger profiling. For more information about this step and the attempt to prevent such profiling in the name of privacy right, visit the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) website, available at: [http://www.epic.org/privacy/airtravel/profiling.html].
59. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Part I of II, Question 2, Article 5.
60. Robert, G. Political Theory and Public Policy, p. 233. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1982.