Performance, representation and the economics of border control in Uzbekistan

Geopolitics

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 712-740

  Megoran, Nick ^a,d   Raballand, Gaël ^b   Bouyjou, Jerome ^c  

^a NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b WORLD BANK   (United States)

^c Sidney Sussex College ^*

^d SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BORDER REGION; ECONOMIC ANALYSIS; GEOPOLITICS; REGULATORY APPROACH;

EID: 30944435843     PISSN: 14650045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14650040500318498     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. M. Coleman, 'U.S Statecraft and the U.S.-Mexico Border as Security/ Economy Nexus', Political Geography 24/2 (2004) p.200.
2. J. Ackleson, 'Constructing Security on the U.S.-Mexico Border', Political Geography 24/2 (2004) pp. 165-84
3. Coleman (note 1) pp. 185-209
4. M. Purcell and J. Nevins, 'Pushing the Boundary: State Restructuring, State Theory, and the case of U.S.-Mexico Border Enforcement in the 1990s', Political Geography 24/2 (2004) pp. 211-35.
5. World Bank, Global Economic Prospects (Washington, DC: World Bank 2005), p. 80.
6. A. Fox, J. Francois, P. Londoño-Kent, 'Measuring Border Crossing Costs and their Impact on Trade Flows: The United States-Mexican Trucking Case', mimeo (2003).
7. A maquiladora is a Mexican company, which operates under a maquila programme (approved by the Mexican Secretariat of Commerce and Industrial Development). This programme entitles the company, first to foreign investment participation, and second to special customs treatment. Generally, all of a maquiladora's products are exported.
8. J. Taylor, D. Robideaux and G. Jackson, 'U.S.-Canada Transportation and Logistics: Border Impacts and Costs, Causes, and Possible Solutions', Transportation Journal 43 (2004) pp. 5-21.
9. G. Raballand, 'Determinants of the Negative Impact of Being Landlocked on Trade: An Empirical Investigation Through the Central Asian Case', Comparative Economic Studies 45 (2003) pp. 520-36.
10. I. Babetskii, O. Babetskaia-Kukharchuk and M. Raiser, How deep is your trade? Transition and international integration in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, EBRD Working Paper 83, 2003.
11. Reliable figures are not available before 1995, mainly because of exchange rate volatility and disorganization of the statistical agencies in the early 1990s.
12. These statistics do not take into account trade in transit, which potentially could be the most affected by Uzbekistan's border policies.
13. We did not take into account the export of special machinery to the value of 2 million USD, because it appeared to be exceptional. If we include it, the actual drop is close to 98 percent.
14. In the 1990s, official trade competed with 'shuttle trade': Small traders travelling to countries such as Turkey, China and the UAE and bringing back products to sell. Unfortunately, for the Uzbek state, this type of trade required a constant demand for hard currency, and imported cheap foreign goods that undercut local production. Consequently, from 2002 onwards Uzbek authorities adopted restrictions to undermine this trade. First of all, high tariff duties were introduced as a disincentive to import goods. Secondly, a minimal capital of 25,000 USD was established to obtain the authorisation necessary to become a wholesale trader (International Crisis Group, The Failure of Reform in Uzbekistan: Ways Forward for the International Community (ICG: Brussels 2004) p. 16). Thirdly, in July 2003, it was decreed that goods other than foodstuffs should be sold in shops or closed stands built in the markets. Costing between 3,000 and 5,000 USD each, these shops were beyond the means of large numbers of small traders (ibid.). As a result, many of them have been driven from the 'grey' to the 'black' economy.
15. P. Seneviratne, Transportation Facilitation in Azerbaijan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan: Challenges and Opportunities (Manila: Asian Development Bank 2003) p. 36.
16. Whereas, for example, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are members of only four conventions. UNESCAP, Transit Transport Issues in Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries (New York: United Nations), p. 53.
17. For the exact figures, see C. Grafe, M. Raiser and T. Sakatsume, 'The Importance of Good Neighbors: Regional Trade in Central Asia', mimeo (2003), Table 8.4.
18. The selected case studies were Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Lao PDR, Mongolia and Nepal.
19. UNESCAP (note 14) p. 22.
20. For a fuller account of the events of 1999, see N. Megoran, 'The Borders of Eternal Friendship: Kyrgyz-Uzbek Relations in 1999, I-III', Eurasianet Insight (New York: Open Society Institute 1999-2000) , accessed 1 November 2004.
21. See also 'Aralagan asap boldu chek ara, aymagïndï kasiettüü Fergana' ['Oh, Sacred Ferghana, your boundaries are crossed with much suffering'] Fergana 15 (65) (12-18 April 2003) pp. 1, 5.
22. Unpublished Kyrgyz government map of border crossing points, 1992.
23. Significantly, the major bridge was rebuilt by rebels who temporarily expelled government officials as part of an uprising in May 2005.
24. Interview with a journalist based in Osh working on cross-border issues.
25. NEA Transport Research and Training, 'Central Asia Trade & Transport Facilitation Study - Study on Kazakhstan', mimeo (2002), p. 8.
26. NEA Transport Research and Training, 'Central Asia Trade & Transport Facilitation Study - Study on Uzbekistan', mimeo (2003), p. 16.
27. Interview by author, 2 July 2004.
28. This fee is requested whatever the transit distance, which means a truck using the old route from Jalalabat to Osh transits through Uzbekistan for less than 10km but has to pay this fee.
29. This decision was taken by the government of Uzbekistan in December 1999.
30. In September 2004, a new transit tax of 5 per cent of the value of the goods transiting through Uzbekistan was established. If implemented, this new tax could further erode trade relations in the Ferghana region.
31. Interviews with local businessmen and officials in Osh region in September-October 2004.
32. L. Ojala, A. Kitain, A. and B. Touboul, 'Tajikistan Trade Diagnostic Study - Trade and Transport Facilitation', mimeo (2004), p. 52.
33. Interview, Kyrgyz small businessman, July 2004.
34. This figure is the product of the figure for operating costs for Kyrgyzstan by the additional distance, based on Seneviratne (note 13).
35. Cotton is regarded as a 'fictitious export' because it is accounted as a Kyrgyz export, but it is actually produced in Uzbekistan. Uzbek cotton producers prefer export via Kyrgyzstan because they can sell it at a higher price. In Uzbekistan, they are obliged by law to sell it a fixed price far below the international price. Consequently, Uzbek producers try to sell cotton from Kyrgyz-based companies, by smuggling it over the border. Kyrgyz companies can thus sell more cotton than they actually produce.
36. This material in this and the subsequent paragraph is based on many interviews with local officials and businessmen (in Kyrgyzstan's Osh region) conducted in September-October 2004.
37. S. Redo, Organized Crime and its Control in Central Asia (Huntsville, AL: Office of International Criminal Justice 2004), p. 129.
38. D. Dosybiev, 'Kazakhstan: The Business of Smuggling', Reporting Central Asia 2004 (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting 2004), available at , accessed 1 November 2004.
39. O. Dosybieva, 'Kazak Flour Smuggling Targeted', Reporting Central Asia 248, 21 November 2003 (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 2003), available at , accessed 1 November 2004.
40. U. Babakulov, 'War of Words over Frontier Killing', Reporting Central Asia 219, 23 July 2003 (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting 2003), available at , accessed 1 November 2004
41. 'Uzbek Border Guard Shoots Kyrgyz Citizen', RFE/RL Newsline 7 (135) Part I, 18 July 2003
42. N. Megoran, 'To Survive, Villagers Buck Uzbek Border Controls', Eurasianet Business and Economics, 25 May 2004 (Washington, DC: Open Society Institute), available at ;
43. Uzbekistan's Ezgulik Human Rights Society alleged that a young trader was tortured to death by Uzbek border guards, after being caught trying to smuggle 100kg of cotton to sell in Kazakhstan, at 12 times the price the Uzbek state procurement enterprise price. The Uzbek government described the death as an 'automobile accident', RFE/RL Central Asia Report 3 (39), 21 November 2003 (Prague: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 2003).
44. The name and location of this post has been concealed in the article, as the aim of this section is not to expose or judge the activities of either individual officials or smugglers, which would demand a balanced consideration of the motives and pressures involved. Rather, it is to explore the theatre of the boundary zone.
45. As the only Central Asian republic to share a border with all the others, discussion of trade, borders and customs in neighbouring states frequently concerns Uzbekistan too.
46. For examples, see G. Gleason, 'Inter-state Cooperation in Central Asia from the CIS to the Shanghai Forum', Europe-Asia Studies 53/7 (2001) pp. 1077-95
47. N. Polat, Boundary Issues in Central Asia (Ardsley: Transnational Publishers 2002);
48. International Crisis Group, 'Central Asia: Border Disputes and Conflict Potential', ICG Asia Report 33 (Osh/Brussels: ICG 2002).
49. It is recognised that the distinctions between political geography, anthropology and border performance theory are not as neat as this overview would imply. This is partially because these different literatures have increasingly engaged with each other. However, this distinction is helpful in introducing what remain approaches with broadly differing roots.
50. Curzon of Kedleston, Frontiers (Oxford: Clarendon 1907);
51. C.S.T. Holdich, 'The Use of Practical Geography Illustrated by Recent Frontier Operations', The Geographical Journal 13/5 (1899) pp. 465-80
52. E. Semple, 'Geographical Boundaries - I.', Bulletin of the American Geographical Society 39/7 (1907) pp.385-97
53. E. Semple, 'Geographical boundaries - II', Bulletin of the American Geographical Society 39/8 (1907) pp. 449-63.
54. For example, G. Blake (ed.), World Boundaries Series, vols 1-5 (London: Routledge 1994);
55. R. Hartshorne, 'Suggestions on the Terminology of Political Boundaries', Annals of the Association of American Geographers 26/1 (1936) pp. 56-7
56. J.R. Prescott, The Geography of Frontiers and Boundaries (London: Hutchinson 1965).
57. D. Newman and A. Paasi, 'Fences and Neighbours in the Postmodern World: Boundary Narratives in Political Geography', Progress in Human Geography 22/2 (1998) pp. 186-207.
58. P. Aalto and E. Berg, 'Spatial Practices and Time in Estonia: From Post-Soviet Geopolitics to European Governance', Space & Polity 6/3 (2002) pp. 253-70
59. E. Berg and S. Oras, 'Writing Post-Soviet Estonia on to the World Map', Political Geography 19/5 (2000) pp. 601-25
60. M. Kuus, 'Sovereignty for Security?: The Discourse of Sovereignty in Estonia', Political Geography 21/3 (2002) pp. 393-412
61. although not strictly post-Soviet, see also S. Moisio, 'Finland, Geopolitical Image of Threat, and the post-Cold War Confusion', Geopolitics 3/3 (1998) pp. 104-24.
62. J. Ackleson, 'Discourses of Identity and Territoriality on the US-Mexico Border', Geopolitics 4/1 (1999) pp. 155-79
63. Ackleson, 'Constructing Security' (note 2);
64. S. Mains, 'Representing National Identity, Borders, and Migration', Hagar: International Social Science Review 3/2 (2002) pp. 271-97.
65. B. Buzan, O. Wæver et al., Security: A New Framework for Analysis (London: Lynne Rienner 1998). The analysis of this so-called 'Copenhagen' school examines the political contexts in which certain issues become 'securitised', or defined as peculiarly threatening and thus demanding extraordinary counter measures.
66. J. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper: The Rise of the "Illegal Alien" and the Making of the U.S.-Mexico Boundary (London: Routledge 2002), pp. 10-12.
67. Ibid., p. 12.
68. It should be acknowledged that there are significant differences between the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan boundary and the US-Mexico case study. Most importantly, migration is probably the key issue in the latter example, but is a relatively minor factor in the former. What is being argued here is that in both cases the securitisation and discursive construction of an international boundary plays an important role in the domestic politics of national identity.
69. N. Megoran, 'The Critical Geopolitics of the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley Boundary Dispute, 1999-2000', Political Geography 23 (2004) pp. 731-64.
70. As Heyman demonstrates in his groundbreaking research on the work of the INS at the US-Mexico border, ethnographic explorations into the actual operation of border control regimes may reveal realities very different from those formally proclaimed by states (J. Heyman, 'Putting Power in the Anthropology of Bureaucracy: The Immigration and Naturalization Service at the Mexico-United States Border', Current Anthropology 36/2 (1995) pp. 261-87
71. J. Heyman, 'State Effects on Labour Exploitation: The INS and Undocumented Immigrants at the Mexico-United States Border', Critique of Anthropology 18/2 (1998) pp. 157-80).
72. T. Wilson and H. Donnan, 'Nation, State and Identity at International Borders', in T. Wilson and H. Donnan (eds), Border Identities: Nation and State at International Frontiers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998), p. 4.
73. For other examples, see W. Miles, Hausaland Divided: Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger (London: Cornell University Press 1994);
74. D. Berdahl, Where the World Ended: Re-Unification and Identity in the German Borderland (London: University of California Press 1997);
75. T. Wilson and D. Hastings (eds), Border Identities: Nation and State at International Frontiers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998);
76. U. Meinhof (ed.), Living (With) Borders: Identity Discourses on East-West Borders in Europe (Aldershot: Ashgate 2002).
77. H. Donnan and T. Wilson, Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State (Oxford: Berg 1999) pp. 88-102.
78. Donnan and Wilson do recognise collusion between smugglers and officials (ibid., pp. 98-99, 103-104). Nonetheless, we still hold that terms such as 'resistance' and 'subversion' too starkly state the case, at least in the Central Asian context.
79. P. Nugent, Smugglers, Secessionists and Loyal Citizens on the Ghana-Togo Frontier: The Lie of the Borderlands Since 1914 (Oxford: James Currey 2002) p. 265.
80. J. Welchman, 'The Philosophical Brothel', in J. Welchman (ed.), Rethinking Borders (London: Macmillan 1996), pp. 160-86.
81. T.T. Minh-ha, 'An Acoustic Journey', in Welchman, Rethinking Borders (note 58) pp. 1-17.
82. N. Richard, 'The Cultural Periphery and Postmodern Decentring: Latin America's Reconversion of Borders', in Welchman, Rethinking Borders (note 58) pp. 71-84.
83. G. Anzaldua, Borderlands, La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute 1999 (1987)).
84. D. Avalos and J. Welchman, 'Response to the Philosophical Brothel', in Welchman, Rethinking Borders (note 58) pp. 187-99.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ackleson 1999 (note 46) p. 165.
87. For example, A. Diener, 'National Territory and the Reconstruction of History in Kazakhstan', Eurasian Geography and Economics 43/8 (2002) pp. 632-50.
88. See note 47.
89. N. Megoran, 'The Critical Geopolitics of Danger in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28(3), pp. 555-580.
90. Ibid.
91. News broadcast, Tashkent TV1, 13 February 1999. I watched it at the time and wrote the quotation down the following week, so cannot confirm that these were the exact words used.
92. 'O'sh-Andijon chegarasi passajir transporti uchun yopiq nega?' [Why is the Osh-Andijon border closed for passenger transport?], Mezon, 13-20 February 1999, p. 1.
93. 'Sadïrbaev bir Akaevdi on Karimovgo almashpayt' [Sadïrbaev wouldn't swap one Akaev for ten Karimovs], Asaba 10, 5, 11 March 1999
94. 'Tübölük dostuktun baasï 5000 bölkö nan' [The price of eternal friendship is 5000 loaves of bread], Res Publica 8 (340), 16-22 March 1999, p. 1.
95. 'Jaholat huruji' ['The attack of ignorance'], Halq So'zi 189 (2751), 13 September 2001, p. 1.
96. Donnan and Wilson (note 55) pp. 100-101.
97. 'Qo'shning tinch - sen tinch' ['If your neighbour is at peace, you are at peace'], Halq So'zi 108 (2146), 2 June 1999, p. 1
98. 'Nafs bandalari' ['Slaves of greed'] Halq So'zi (2161), 23 June 1999, p. 4.
99. 'Bojhona: 130 kilogramm ≪oq ajal≫' ['Customs checkpoint: 130kg of "white death"'], Halq So'zi (2113), 17 April 1999, p.1
100. 'Bojihona' ['The customs checkpoint'], Halq So/zi (2135), 18 May 1999.
101. 'Bojhonada nima gap? Ularning niyati buzuq edi' ['What is the news at the customs checkpoint? Their intentions were evil.'], Halq So'zi 96 (2134), 15 May 1999, p. 2.
102. 'Qalloblarning misi chiqdi' [The cheats have been exposed], Halq So'zi 50 (2088), 13 March 1999, p. 4.
103. See Megoran (note 63) for a fuller examination of this material.
104. "O'zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentning Farmoni: O'zbekiston Respublikasi Davlat Chegaralarini Himoya Qiluvchi Qo'mitani Tashkil Qilish To'g'risida' [The Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan: About the Formation of a Committee for the Defence of the State Boundaries of the Republic of Uzbekistan], Halq So'zi 9 (2047), 14 January 1999, p. 1.
105. In the Soviet period 15 February was celebrated, the date in 1921 when the border guards were founded (A. Chandler, Institutions of Isolation: Border Controls in the Soviet Union and Its Successor States, 1917-1993 (London: McGill-Queen's University Press 1998), p. 40). President Karimov's new celebration was thus new in content but not form, an assertion of state authority in a post-Soviet framework that would be readily comprehensible to politicians and public alike. Indeed, much of the rhetorical practice around customs officials has antecedents in the Soviet system, even to 1980s KGB chief, V.V. Fedorchuk, accusing Western 'centres of ideological diversion' of systematically violating Soviet borders by conducting illegal trade (p. 88).
106. A. Paasi, 'Boundaries as Social Processes: Territoriality in the World of Flows', in D. Newman (ed.), Boundaries, Territory and Postmodernity (London: Frank Cass 1999), pp. 69-88.
107. A. March, 'The Use and Abuse of History: "National Ideology" as Transcendental Object in Islam Karimov's "Ideology of National Independence"', Central Asian Survey 21/4 (2002) pp. 371-84.
108. See note 76.
109. 'Ombordan - bojhongacha' ['From the warehouse to the customs house'], Halq So'zi 158 (2196), 12 August 1999), p. 3.
110. 'O'zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentning Farmoni: O'zbekiston Respublikasi Davlat bojhona qo'mitasining alohida o'rnak ko'rsatgan xodimlaridan bir guruhini mukofotlash' ['Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Rewarding A Group of Officers of the Customs Service Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan for Exemplary Performance'], Halq So'zi 27 (2065), 10 February 1999, p.1.
111. 'Hushhabarlar: Yangi bojAona' [Glad tidings: a new customs checkpoint], Halq So'zi 18 (2056), 28 January 1999, p.4. The customs code was revised and published in widely available form: O'zbekiston Respublikasi Adliya Vazirligi, O'zbekiston Respublikasining Bojhona Kodeksi: O'zbekiston Respublikasining Boj Tarifi va Davlat Bojhona Xizmati To'g'risidagi Qonunlari [The Customs Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan: Regulations Regarding Customs Tarifs and the State Customs Service of The Republic of Uzbekistan] (Tashkent: Adolat 2000).
112. 'Bojhona: Mahorat maktabi' ['The custAms checkpoint: a school of excellence'], Halq So'zi 64 (2012), 01 April 1999, p. 1.
113. 'O'zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidenti Islom Karimovga tashakkurnoma' [A letter of gratitude to the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov], Halq So'zi 141 (2179), 17 July 1999, p.1.
114. 'Vatan sarhadlari mustahkam' [The frontiers of the fatherland are secure], Halq So'zi 202 (2240), 13 October 1999, p. 1.
115. Conversation with anti-narcotics officer in Kyrgyz police, 2000.
116. Yostiq is the Uzbek for 'pillow'.
117. Jaloladdin Manguberdi (1199-1231 resisted the Mongol invasion of Central Asia in the thirteenth century; Amir Timur (1336-1405) built a large empire based on Samarkand in the fourteenth. Both have been used as emblems of Uzbek statehood in official constructions of national identity since independence.
118. To use the terminology of M. Foucher, Fronts et Frontières (Paris: Fayard 1991). Foucher argues that turning a border into a 'frontline' ineluctably increase interstate tensions. A 'good border' is a border accepted as such by all the contiguous states, which is the ultimate legitimization of any border.
119. Exact figures of those who have perished along the boundary in recent years are difficult to obtain. Some reports have put the numbers in the hundreds, but a more conservative estimate would number them by the score.
120. 'O'zbek chegarachisi sudlanadi' [Uzbek border guards brought to trial], Farg'ona 36 (47) 13-19 October 2003, p. 1 (Jalalabat).
121. Groundbreaking work on the US-Mexico border by Falcón and Brownell has highlighted the increased dangers of sexual violence to women at the hands of US officials with the militarisation of border controls. Conversations and interviews with both local and foreign women in Central Asia suggest that sexual intimidation has increased with the militarisation of border and customs controls, and any policy that promotes further militarisation may contribute more to gender-based violence (P. Brownell, 'Border Militarization and the Reproduction of Mexican Migrant Labour', Social Justice 28/2 (2001) pp. 69-92
122. S. Falcón, 'Rape as a Weapon of War: Advancing Human Rights for Women at the U.S.-Mexico Border', Social Justice 28/2 (2001) pp. 31-50.).
123. Reports by Human Rights Watched have also accused INS officials of rape and sexual abuse, as part of a catalogue of human rights abuses Human Rights Watch, Brutality Unchecked:HUman Rights Abuses Along the U.S. Border with Mexico (New York: Human Rights Watch 1992);
124. Human Rights Watch, Crossing the Line:HUman Rights Abuses Along the U.S. Border with Mexico Persist Amid Climate of Impunity (New York: Human Rights Watch 1995).
125. In the case of Uzbekistan, as Boboev reports, the customs service only recruits people who have performed military service. It is to be assumed that this makes the militarisation of the customs culture more likely. M. Boboev, Conscription a Popular Career Move in Uzbekistan Reporting Central Asia 322 (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting 2004).
126. Erika Daily, 'Drug Searches And Human Rights Violations on the Tajikistan Border', Eurasianet (New York: Open Society Institute, 2000).
127. Sultan Jumagulov, 'Border Dispute Threatens to Escalate', Reporting Central Asia (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting).
128. J. Glenn, 'Human Security and the Disaffected of Central Asia', International Relations 17/4 (2003) pp. 453-75.
129. N. Lubin, 'Who's Watching the Watchdogs?', Journal of International Affairs 56/2 (2003) pp. 43-58.
130. 'U.S. gives Uzbek Border Troops 17 Tons of Communications Equipment', RFE/RL Newsline 7 (161), Part I, 25 July 2003 (Prague: Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty 2003);
131. 'U.S. gives more Vehicles, Equipment to Uzbek Customs and Border Services', RFE/RL Newsline 8 (28), Part I, 12 February 2004 (Prague: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 2004).
132. 'Washington Pushes Karimov Closer to Moscow', Eurasia Daily Monitor 1 (57) 22 July 2004 (Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation 2004).
133. 'Rumsfeld in Central Asia', The Monitor 8 (85), 01 May 2002 (Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation 2002);
134. 'U.S. gives Helicopters to Kyrgyzstan to Help Secure Border', RFE/RL Newsline 8 (14), Part I, 23 January 2004 (Prague: Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty 2004);
135. 'U.S. Training for Tajik Soldiers', RFE/RL Newsline (8) 65, Part I, 7 April 2004 (Prague: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 2004).
136. P. Andreas, 'Introduction: The Wall after the Wall', in P. Andreas and T. Snyder (eds), The Wall Around the West: State Borders and Immigration Controls in North America and Europe (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield 2000), pp. 1-11.
137. Coleman (note 1) p. 198.
138. For example, in this case the performative/representational aspects of border policy are not separate from, but mutually constitutive of, the beneficial economic side-effects for state officials who subvert formal procedures. However, this may necessarily be the case elsewhere.