Nitrogen oxides emission control options for coal-fired electric utility boilers

Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association

Volumn 55, Issue 9, 2005, Pages 1367-1388

  Srivastava, Ravi K ^a   Hall, Robert E ^a   Khan, Sikander ^b   Culligan, Kevin ^b   Lani, Bruce W ^c  

^a U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c NATIONAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BOILERS; CATALYSIS; COAL FIRED BOILERS; CONTROL THEORY; ELECTRIC UTILITIES; PARTICULATE EMISSIONS; REDUCTION;

CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES; EMISSION RATES; SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION (SCR); SELECTIVE NONCATALYTIC REDUCTION (SNCR);

NITROGEN OXIDES;

COAL; NITROGEN OXIDE;

AIR POLLUTANT; AIR QUALITY; BOILER; CATALYSIS; COAL FIRED ELECTRIC UTILITY BOILER; CONTROL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REACTION ANALYSIS; REDUCTION; REVIEW; TECHNOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 30544436839     PISSN: 10962247     EISSN: 21622906     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10473289.2005.10464736     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Price, D., Birnbaum, R., Batiuk, R., McCullough, M., Smith, R. Nitrogen Oxides: Impacts on Public Health and the Environment; EPA-452/R-97-002 (NTIS PB98-104631); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation: Washington, DC, 1997.
2. Criteria Pollutant Data, Current Emission Trends Summaries, Trends 1970_2001to CHIEF 082803.xls spreadsheet; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards: Research Triangle Park, NC, 2001; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/ (accessed July 1, 2005).
3. State-Level Emission Inventory Summaries for All Criteria Pollutants for Each Sector for Years 2001, 2010, and 2015, Base and Control Cases (Excel version of Appendix A of AQ Modeling TSD); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site, http://www.epa.gov/interstateair quali-ty/technical.htm (accessed July 1, 2005).
4. REvised NOx Emission Limitations for Group I, Phase II Boilers, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Code of Federal Regulations, Part 76; Title 40, 2000.
5. x Emission Limitations for Group 2 Boilers, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Code of Federal Regulations, Part 76.6, Title 40, 2000.
6. x Budget Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, June 2001; available on U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web site, http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/otc/index.html (accessed July 1, 2005).
7. Revisions of Standards of Performance for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions From New Fossil-Fuel Fired Steam Generating Units; Revisions to Reporting Requirements for Standards of Performance for New Fossil-Fuel Fired Steam Generating Units, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. htt://www.epa.gov/ttn.oarpg/t1/fr_notices/noxpref.pdf (accessed July 19, 2005).
8. EPA's NOx Budget Trading Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/fednox/index.html (accessed July 19, 2005).
9. Rule to Reduce Interstate Transport of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone (Clean Air Interstate Rule); Revisions to Acid Rain Program; Revisions to the NOx SIP Call, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency http://www.epa.gov/cair/pdfs/cair_final_preamble.pdf (accessed July 19, 2005).
10. Miller, J.A., Bowman, C.T. Mechanism and Modeling of Nitrogen Chemistry in Combustion; Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1989, 15, 287-338.
11. Wendt, J.O.L. Fundamental Coal Combustion Mechanisms and Pollutant Formation in Furnaces; Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1980, 6, 201-222.
12. Bowman, C.T. In Fossil Fuel Combustion: A Source Book; Chemistry of Gaseous Pollutant Formation and Destruction. Bartok, E., Sarofim, A.F., Eds., John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1991; pp 228-252.
13. Zeldovich, Y.B. The Oxidization of Nitrogen in Combustion Explosions; Acta Physiochimica, U.S.S.R. 1946, 21, 577-628.
14. Whitfield, T; Wilson, C., Pitsko, D; Kokkinos, A., Wasyluk, D., Boris, M., Hicks, J. Comparison of NOx Emissions Reductions with PRB and Bituminous Coals in 900 MW Tangentially Fired Boilers. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA: Washington, DC, May 1922, 2003.
15. MacKinnon, D.J. Nitric Oxide Formation at High Temperature; J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 1974, 24, 237-239.
16. Pohl, J.H., Sarofim, A.F. Devolatilization and Oxidation of Coal Nitrogen; In Proceedings of the 16th Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute: Pittsburgh, PA, 1976; pp 491-501.
17. Stamey-Hall, S. Alternative Control Techniques Document—NOx Emissions from Utility Boilers; EPA-453/R-94-023 (NTIS PB94-184165); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards: Research Triangle Park, NC, 1994.
18. Analyzing Electric Power Generation Under CAAA; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation: Washington, DC, 1998; available at http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/epa-ipm/ (accessed July 1, 2005).
19. x Emissions in Combustion Systems. In Proceedings oftheEPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium ; EPRI/ DOe/ePA, Atlanta, GA, August 16-20, 1999.
20. Conrads, H.G. Increasing Boiler Efficiency by UBC Monitoring. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2002 Conference on Unburned Carbon on Utility Fly Ash; National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, May 14, 2002; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/02/ubc/conradssummary.pdf (accessed July 1, 2005).
21. Larrimore, L. Effects of Higher Carbon Levels on Ash Utilization. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2000 Conference on Unburned Carbon on Utility Fly Ash; DOE/NETL, Pittsburgh, PA, May 14, 2002; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/00/ubc00/ LARRYMORE.pdf (accessedJuly 1, 2005).
22. Payne, R., Sommer, T., Melick, T., Johnson, R. Combustion Modification NOx Control-New Results. In Proceedings of the EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
23. x Emissions in Tangentially-Fired Boilers. In Proceedings of the EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001
24. x Emissions Reductions with PRB and Bituminous Coals in 900 MW Tangentially Fired Boilers. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, May 1922, 2003.
25. Khan, S., Srivastava, R.K. Updating Performance and Cost of NOx Control Technologies in the Integrated Planning Model. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
26. x/MMBtu. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA, Atlanta, GA, August 16-20, 1999.
27. Ralston, J., Fischer, E. Application of Mobotec ROFA Technology on a 150 MW Coal-Fired CE Boiler. EVEC, An Electric Utilities Environmental Conference; Tucson, AZ, January 2001.
28. MobotecUsa; available at http://www.mobotecusa.com/projects/ installations.htm (accessed July 5, 2005).
29. Mobotec Usa; ROFA Experience at Cape Fear Units 5 and 6, Vartaver-ket Unit P14, and Hasselbyverket Unit 3; available at: http://www.mo-botecusa.com/projects/ (accessedJuly 19, 2004).
30. Fuller, T.A., Daw, S.C., Finney, C.E.A., Musgrove, B., Stallings, J., Flynn, T.J., Bailey, R.T., Hutchinson, D., Lassahn, R. Advances in Utility Applications of the Flame Doctor System. In Proceedings ofthe DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant ControlMega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/ AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
31. Conn, S., Frizzell, K., Dusatko, G., Vacek, M., Adams, B. Combustion Optimization at OMU's Elmer Smith Unit 1: Meeting SCR Specifications and Maintaining Plant Heat Rate. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant ControlMega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/ AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
32. Davey, T.A. Achieving Uniform Combustion Using Burner Line Orifices to Balance Coal Flow Distribution. In Proceedings oftheEPA-DOE-EPRI CombinedPowerPlantAirPollutantControlSymposium, TheMEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001
33. Laux, S., Headman, A., Grusha, J., Rosin, T. Benefits and Experience with Coal and Air Flow Measurement and Automatic Control on Pulverized Coal Fired Boilers- Update 2003. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
34. Letcavits, J.J., Early, D. Combustion Optimization of a 150 Mw (Net) Boiler Utilizing Air and Fuel Flow Measurement and Control. In Proceedings of the EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001
35. Warriner, G.H., Logan, S., Pascoe, S., Noblett, J.G. Full-Scale Implementation Results for GNOCIS Plus. In Proceedings of the EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001
36. Smith, S., Zablocky, P., Kohn, D., Noble, G. Combustion Optimization Case Studies and Emerging Applications. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
37. Partlow, B., Marz, P., Kaltenbach, R., Grusha, J. NOx Reduction with Improvement in Plant Efficiency. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/ EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
38. Bool, L.E. III; Bradley, J. NOx Reduction from a 44 MW Wall-Fired Boiler Utilizing Oxygen Enhanced Combustion. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/ EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
39. x Control Strategies for Coal-Fired Boilers. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
40. Wendt, J.O.L., Sternling, C.V., Matovich, M.A. Reduction of Sulfur Trioxide and Nitrogen Oxides by Secondary Fuel Injection. In Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Combustion; The Combustion Institute: Pittsburgh, PA, 1973; p 881.
41. X Control Technologies and Cost Effectiveness for Utility Boilers; Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management: Boston, MA, 1998.
42. Folsom, B; Hartsock, D., Latham, C., Payne, R., Sommer, T., Scaccia, M. Reburn Scale-Up Experience. In Proceedings of the EPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
43. Moyeda, D. Reburn Technology Application Guidelines. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2004 Conference on Reburning for NOx Control—Reburning on Trial; National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC; 2004; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/04/NOx/e10.35moyeda2-presentation.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
44. Farzan, H., Maringo, G.J., Johnson, D.W., Wong, D.K., Beard, C.T., Brewster, S.E. B&W's Advances on Cyclone NOx Control via Fuel and Air Staging Technologies. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA, Atlanta, GA, August 16-20, 1999.
45. x Emissions Reduction. In Proceedings ofthe EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA, Atlanta, GA, August16-20, 1999.
46. Mann, A., Ruppel, T. Scorecard on Reburning. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2004 Conference on Reburning for NOx Control—Reburning on Trial; National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC; 2004. Available at: http://www.netl.doe-.gov/publications/proceedings/04/NOx/posters/ Reburning%20Scorecard.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
47. Payne, R. GE Energy, Irvine, CA. Personal communication, 2004.
48. Lyon, R.K. Method for the Reduction of the Concentration of NO in Combustion Effluents Using Ammonia. U.S Patent 3,900,554, August 1975.
49. x Emissions; Institute of Clean Air Companies: Washington, DC, 2000.
50. Himes, R.M. A Fresh Look at SNCR. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/ EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
51. Staudt, J., Kehrer, K., Poczynec, J., Cote, R., Pierce, R., Afonso, R., Sload, A., Miles, D. Optimizing Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction Systems for Cost-Effective Operation on Coal-Fired Electric Utility Boilers. In ICACForum '98; Institute of Clean Air Companies, Durham, NC, 1998.
52. x Control; EPRI/EPA: Kansas City, MO, 1995.
53. Foerter, D. Institute of Clean Air Companies, Washington, DC. Personal communication, 2001.
54. White Paper: Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Control ofNOx Emissions; Selective Catalytic Reduction Committee, Institute of Clean Air Companies: Washington, DC, 1997.
55. Whiteman, C. Institute of Clean Air Companies, Washington, DC. Personal communication, 2004.
56. Johnson, R.E., Sigling, R.A., Rigby, K., Pajonk, G., Hums, E., Klatt, A. U.S. Utility Coal-Fired SCR Applications: SCR Catalyst-Specific Issues and Operating Expenses. In PowerGen International 2002; Orlando, FL, 2002.
57. Staudt, J.E. Minimizing the Impact of SCR Catalyst on Total Generating Cost through Effective Catalyst Management. In Proceedings oftheASME Power Conference; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Baltimore, MD, March 30-April 1, 2004; available at: http://www.andovertech-nology.com/PWR2004_52091.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
58. Cichanowicz, J.E., Muzio, L.J. Factors Affecting Selection of a Catalyst Management Strategy. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/ AWMA: Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
59. Staudt, J.E., Engelmeyer, A.J. SCR Catalyst Management Strategies-Modeling and Experience. In Proceedings ofthe DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/EPRI/EPA/ AWMA: Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
60. McLaughlin, B.R., Blunden, W.E., Holstein, D.B. SCR Retrofits for Coal Fired Plants: Lessons Learned. In Proceedings of the DOE-EPRI-EPA-AWMA Combined Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; DOE/ EPRI/EPA/AWMA, Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
61. Hanson, R., Borio, D., Cohen, M., Buschmann, J.C., Brandt, J. Early Operating Experience of the Spurlock SCR System. In ICACForum '03: Multi-Pollutant Emission Controls and Strategies; Institute of Clean Air Companies: Nashville, TN, 2003.
62. Bullock, D.W., Hartenstein, H. O&M Cost Reduction of a Coal-Fired U.S. Merchant Plant through an Optimized SCR Management Strategy Involving Catalyst Regeneration. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2002 Conference on ScR and SNCR for NOx Control; DOE/NETL: Pittsburgh, PA, 2002; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/ proceedings/02/scr-sncr/Bullock.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
63. Lauber, J., Cohen, M., Donais, R. The Integration of Low-NOx Control Technologies at the Southern Energy, Inc. Birchwood Power Facility. In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA 1997 Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium; EPRI TR-108683-V1; EPRI/DOE/EPA: Washington, DC, August 1997.
64. Cochran, J.R., Scarlett, D., Johnson, R. SCR for a 460 MW Coal Fueled Unit: Stanton Unit 2 Design, Startup, and Operation. In Proceedings of theEPRI/DOE/EPA 1997 Combined UtilityAirPollution ControlSymposium; EPRI TR-108683-V1; EPRI/DOE/EPA: Washington, DC, August 1997.
65. Pritchard, S., Hellard, D., Cochran, J. Catalyst Design Experience for 640 MW Cyclone Boiler Fired with 100% PRB Fuel. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI TR-113187-V2; EPRI/DOE/EPA: Atlanta, GA, August 16-20, 1999.
66. Harris, D., Pritchard, S. First Year's Operating Experience with SCR on 600 MW PRB-Fired Boiler. In Proceedings of the 2001 Conference on Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) for NOx Control; Pittsburgh, PA, 2001; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/scr/pritchard.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
67. Ake, T., Erickson, C; Medeioros, W; Hutcheson, L., Barger M., Rutherford S. Limestone Injection for Protection of SCR Catalyst. In Proceedings of the EPA-EPRI-NETL-AWMA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; EPA/EPRI/NETL/AWMA Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
68. Marshall, L., Afonso, R., Tavoulareas, S., Stallings, J. Prediction and Mitigation of Air Preheater Fouling Due to Ammonium Bisulfate. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA: Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
69. Butler, B., Gaikwad, R.P. Operating Experience of SCRs at Texas Genco's Coal and Gas Fired Power Plants. In Proceedings of the EPRI-EPA-DOE Combined Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; EPRI/EPA/ DOE: Washington, DC, August 30-September 2, 2004.
70. Cichanowicz, J.E., Smith, L.L., Muzio, L.J. Twenty-Five Years of SCR Evolution: Implications for US Application and Operation. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA: Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
71. Cichanowicz, J.E., Smith, L.L., Muzio, L.J., Marchetti, J. 100 GW of SCR: Installation Status and Implications of Operating Performance on Compliance Strategies. In Proceedings of the EPA-EPRI-NETL-AWMA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; EPA/EPRI/NETL/AWMA: Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
72. NEEDs (National Electric Energy System) Database for IPM 2004; Clean Air Markets— Programs and Regulations; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2004; available at http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/epa-ipm (accessed July 5, 2005).
73. Kokkinos, A., Cline, H.W. Design and Results of a Selective Catalytic System for a 600 MW Coal-Fired Utility Boiler. In ICAC Forum 2002: Cutting NOx Institute of Clean Air Companies: Nashville: Houston, TX, 2002.
74. Staudt, J. Andover Technology Management, Andover, MA. Personal communication, 2001.
75. Glickert, R.W., HerZau, J.S., Meskimen, R.L., Pratapas, J.M. Application of Fuel Lean Gas Reburn Technology at Commonwealth Edison's Joliet Generating Station 9. In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA 1997 Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium; EPRI/DOE/ EPA: Washington, DC, August 1997.
76. Breen, B.P., Schrecengost, R., Brown, R.C., Sweterlitsch, J., Emsick, N. Fuel-Lean Reburn with In-Situ Gasification of Coal, Biomass, and Biomass-Coal Mixtures and with Biomass-Derived Gases. In Proceedings of the DOE/NETL 2004 Conference on Reburning for NOx Control—Reburning on Trial; available at http://www.netl.doe.gov/ publications/proceedings/04/NOx/i01.30breen-presentation.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
77. Killen, D., Boyle, J.M., O'Leary, J.H. Fuel Gas Reburn and Urea-SNCR Applied to a 198 MW Coal-fired Boiler. In Proceedings oftheEPA-DOE-EPRI Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium, The MEGA Symposium; EPA/DOE/EPRI: Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
78. x Control; available at http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/99/99scr-sncr/schrecen.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
79. x Reduction SNCR and Air Heater SCR. In Proceedings of the DOE Conference on SCR and SNCR; DOE: Pittsburgh, PA, May 21-22, 1997.
80. x Control Technologies on a Wet Bottom, Coal-Fired Utility Boiler. In Proceedings of the DOE Conference on SCR and SNCR; DOE: Pittsburgh, PA, May 21-22, 1997.
81. Gretta, W.J., Hinton, W.S., Jones, O.B. Results from the In-Line SCR Retrofit at TXU's Lake Hubbard Station. In Power Gen International 2002; PenWell Corp.: Orlando, FL; 2002.
82. Huttenhofer, K., Beer, J.K., Smeets, H.;vanderKooij, J.TheDenoxAir Preheater Downstream of a Coal-Fired Boiler. In Proceedings of the EPRI/EPA 1993 JointSymposium on Stationary Combustion NOx Control; EPRI/EPA: Miami Beach, FL, May 24-27, 1993.
83. Klett, M.G., Rutkowski, M.D. Processes for SCR Ammonia Production from Urea; U.S. Department of Energy, Letter Report, Contract No. DE-AM01-98FE65271, Task No. DE-AT01-99FE65825; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 2002.
84. Cremer, M.A., Adams, B. R., O'Connor, D. C., Bhamidipati, V., Broderick, R. G. Design and Demonstration of Rich Reagent Injection (RRI) for NOx Reduction at Conectiv's B.L. England Station. In Proceedings of the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Symposium: The MEGA Symposium; EPRI/DOE/EPA, Chicago, IL, August 20-23, 2001.
85. Bool, L., Kobayashi, H., Thompson, D., Eddings, E., Okerlund, R., Cremer, M; Wang, D. Oxygen for NOx Control—A Step Change Technology? In 19th Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference, University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh, PA, September 23-27, 2002.
86. x Control; U.S. Department of Energy, Final Report, Contract No. DE-FC26-00NT40756; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 2004.
87. x Emission Control from Coal-Fired Boilers; Department of Energy, Final Report, Contract No. DE-FC26-00NT40754; Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 2002.
88. x Reduction from Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers. In Proceedings of the EPA-EPRI-NETL-AWMA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; EPRI/ NETL/AWMA: Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
89. FGD Handbook; Report No. IEACR/65; International Energy Agency Coal Research: London; 1994, available at: http://www.caer.uky.edu/ iea/ieacr65.shtml (accessed July 19, 2005).
90. th Symposium on Integrated Environmental Control; Electric Power Research Institute, Washington, DC, March 1988.
91. Technology Assessment of Clean Coal Technologies for China: Electric Power Production, World Bank ESMAP and AESEG Technical Paper 011; World Bank: Washington, DC, 2001.
92. x Reduction by Cleaning Flue Gas Condensate from Ammonia. In Proceedings of the PowerGen International Conference, New Orleans, LA, November 30-December 2, 1999.
93. x. In Proceedings of the EPA-EPRI-NETL-AWMA Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium; EPA/NETL/AWMA: Washington, DC, May 19-22, 2003.
94. Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program: Update 2000; DOE/FE-0437; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC; 2001.
95. x Technology at the Gela Power Plant in Sicily. In Proceedings of PowerGen 2000 Europe; Helsinki, Finland, June 2000.
96. Final Report for Niles Demonstration, Vol. I: Public Design; DOE/PC/8955-T21 (NTIS: DE96050312); U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 1996.
97. A Study of Toxic Emissions from a Coal-Fired Power Plant Utilizing the SNOx Innovative Clean Coal Technology Demonstrations; DOE/PC/ 93251-T3; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 1994.
98. th Particulate Control Symposium; Washington, DC, April 1993.
99. Olson, D.G., Tsuji, K., Shiraishi, I. The Reduction of Gas Phase Air Toxics from Combustion and Incineration Sources Using the MET-Mitsui-BF Activated Coke Process. In 1999InternationalAsh Utilization Symposium; Center for Applied Energy Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, October 18-20, 1999.
100. Tsuji, K., Shiraishi, I. Combined Desulfurization, Denitrification, and Reduction of Air Toxics Using Activated Coke; Fuel 1997, 76, 549-560.
101. Dry Type Desulfurization Denitrification Technology for Coal-Fired Power Plants; Mitsui Mining Co. Brochure, Mitsui Mining Co. Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan, 2000.
102. Peltier, R. Mercury Removal Standards Are Coming. Where's The Technology? Power, May 2003 https/online.platts.com/PPS/ P=m&e +1096495302758.3584968496075286333/ (accessed July 19, 2005).
103. Powerspan Corporation; available at: http://www.powerspan.com (accessed July 5, 2005).
104. Boyle, P., Steen, D., DoVale, A.J. Commercial Demonstration of ECO Multi-Pollutant Control Technology. In Proceedings ofPower-Gen International 2003; Las Vegas, NV, December 9-11, 2003.
105. x Removal Flue Gas Cleanup System; MK Ferguson Company, Office of Clean Coal Technology, U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, 1991; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/cctc/resources/pdfs/noxso/0000015B.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).
106. Fluid-Bed Copper Oxide Process, Phase IV Conceptual Design And Economic Evaluation; U.S. Department of Energy, Final Report, Contract No. DE-AC22-85PC81004, A.E. Roberts and Associates: Atlanta, Georgia, November 30, 1994; available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/cctc/resources/pdfsmisc/fgd/M96005559.pdf (accessed July 5, 2005).