Civic generation: Policy feedback effects of the GI Bill on political involvement over the life course

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 34, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 497-518

  Mettler, Suzanne ^a   Welch, Eric ^b  

^a SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 3042778442     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123404000158     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), p. 254; William Strauss and Neil Howe, Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584-2069 (New York: William Morrow, 1991), pp. 261-78; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), chaps. 2, 5 and 7.
2. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), p. 254; William Strauss and Neil Howe, Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584-2069 (New York: William Morrow, 1991), pp. 261-78; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), chaps. 2, 5 and 7.
3. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), p. 254; William Strauss and Neil Howe, Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584-2069 (New York: William Morrow, 1991), pp. 261-78; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), chaps. 2, 5 and 7.
4. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 248.
5. US President's Commission on Veterans' Pensions, Veterans' Benefits in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1956), p. 287; US Senate, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, 'Final Report on Educational Assistance to Veterans: A Comparative Study of Three GI Bills', 93rd Cong., 1st Sess., Senate Committee Print No. 18 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 161.
6. US President's Commission on Veterans' Pensions, Veterans' Benefits in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1956), p. 287; US Senate, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, 'Final Report on Educational Assistance to Veterans: A Comparative Study of Three GI Bills', 93rd Cong., 1st Sess., Senate Committee Print No. 18 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 161.
7. See Paul Pierson, Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004 forthcoming).
8. The ideas presented here are inspired by Virginia Sapiro, 'Toward A History of Political Action in the United States' (unpublished paper, available at http://polisci.wisc.edu/users/sapiro/research.htm; Andrew Abbott, 'Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas', Annual Review of Sociology, 21 (1995), 93-113; Katherine Stovel, 'Local Sequential Patterns: The Structure of Lynching in the Deep South, 1882-1930', Social Forces, 79 (2001), 843-80.
9. The ideas presented here are inspired by Virginia Sapiro, 'Toward A History of Political Action in the United States' (unpublished paper, available at http://polisci.wisc.edu/users/sapiro/research.htm; Andrew Abbott, 'Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas', Annual Review of Sociology, 21 (1995), 93-113; Katherine Stovel, 'Local Sequential Patterns: The Structure of Lynching in the Deep South, 1882-1930', Social Forces, 79 (2001), 843-80.
10. The ideas presented here are inspired by Virginia Sapiro, 'Toward A History of Political Action in the United States' (unpublished paper, available at http://polisci.wisc.edu/users/sapiro/research.htm; Andrew Abbott, 'Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas', Annual Review of Sociology, 21 (1995), 93-113; Katherine Stovel, 'Local Sequential Patterns: The Structure of Lynching in the Deep South, 1882-1930', Social Forces, 79 (2001), 843-80.
11. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
12. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
13. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
14. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
15. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
16. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
17. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
18. Kenneth P. Langton, Political Participation and Learning (North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1980); Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 13; Laura Stoker and M. Kent Jennings, 'Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Behavior: The Case of Marriage', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 421-37: John M. Strate, Charles J. Parrish, Charles D. Elder and Coit Ford III, 'Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation', American Political Science Review, 83 (1989), 443-64; Bonnie H. Erickson and T. A. Nosanchuk, 'How an Apolitical Association Politicizes', Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 27 (1990). 206-19; Steven A. Peterson, 'Church Participation and Political Participation: The Spillover Effect', American Politics Quarterly, 20 (1992), 123-39; Frank R. Baumgartner and Jack L. Walker, 'Survey Research and Membership in Voluntary Associations', American Journal of Political Science, 32 (1988), 908-28; Kenneth D. Wald, Lyman Kellstedt and David C. Leege, 'Church Involvement and Political Behavior', in David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstadt, eds, Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993), pp. 121-38.
19. M. Kent Jennings and Laura Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement: A Longitudinal Multiple-Generation Analysis' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001, available at proceedings@apsanet.org); Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, chap. 15; Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns and Kay Lehman Schlozman, 'Unequal at the Starting Line: Transmitting Participatory Inequalities across Generations' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
20. M. Kent Jennings and Laura Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement: A Longitudinal Multiple-Generation Analysis' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001, available at proceedings@apsanet.org); Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, chap. 15; Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns and Kay Lehman Schlozman, 'Unequal at the Starting Line: Transmitting Participatory Inequalities across Generations' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
21. M. Kent Jennings and Laura Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement: A Longitudinal Multiple-Generation Analysis' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001, available at proceedings@apsanet.org); Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, chap. 15; Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns and Kay Lehman Schlozman, 'Unequal at the Starting Line: Transmitting Participatory Inequalities across Generations' (paper prepared for delivery at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001).
22. Richard G. Braungart and Margaret M. Braungart, 'Life-Course and Generational Politics', Annual Review of Sociology, 12 (1986), 205-31. p. 215; Virginia Sapiro, 'Political Socialization During Adulthood: Clarifying the Political Time of Our Lives', Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology, 4 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1994), pp. 97-223.
23. Richard G. Braungart and Margaret M. Braungart, 'Life-Course and Generational Politics', Annual Review of Sociology, 12 (1986), 205-31. p. 215; Virginia Sapiro, 'Political Socialization During Adulthood: Clarifying the Political Time of Our Lives', Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology, 4 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1994), pp. 97-223.
24. Neal E. Cutler, 'Political Socialization Research as Generational Analysis', in S. A. Renshon, ed., Handbook of Political Socialization: Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1977); David L. Featherman, 'Life-Span Perspectives in Social Science Research', in P. B. Baltes and O. Brim Jr, eds, Life-Span Development and Behavior (New York: Academic, 1983); Glen H. Elder Jr, 'History and the Life Course', Biography and Society: The Life History Approach in the Social Sciences (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), pp. 77-115.
25. Neal E. Cutler, 'Political Socialization Research as Generational Analysis', in S. A. Renshon, ed., Handbook of Political Socialization: Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1977); David L. Featherman, 'Life-Span Perspectives in Social Science Research', in P. B. Baltes and O. Brim Jr, eds, Life-Span Development and Behavior (New York: Academic, 1983); Glen H. Elder Jr, 'History and the Life Course', Biography and Society: The Life History Approach in the Social Sciences (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), pp. 77-115.
26. Neal E. Cutler, 'Political Socialization Research as Generational Analysis', in S. A. Renshon, ed., Handbook of Political Socialization: Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1977); David L. Featherman, 'Life-Span Perspectives in Social Science Research', in P. B. Baltes and O. Brim Jr, eds, Life-Span Development and Behavior (New York: Academic, 1983); Glen H. Elder Jr, 'History and the Life Course', Biography and Society: The Life History Approach in the Social Sciences (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), pp. 77-115.
27. R. Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977); R. Inglehart, 'Political Action: The Impact of Values, Cognitive Level, and Social Background', in S. H. Barnes and M. Kaase, eds, Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage, 1979), pp. 343-80.
28. R. Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977); R. Inglehart, 'Political Action: The Impact of Values, Cognitive Level, and Social Background', in S. H. Barnes and M. Kaase, eds, Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage, 1979), pp. 343-80.
29. Elder, 'History and the Life Course'.
30. Glen H. Elder Jr, Cynthia Gimbel and Rachel Ivie, 'Turning Points in Life: The Case of Military Service and War', Military Psychology, 3 (1991), 215-331; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives', Developmental Psychology, 22 (1986), 233-45; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans', Sociological Forum, 2 (1987), 449-72.
31. Glen H. Elder Jr, Cynthia Gimbel and Rachel Ivie, 'Turning Points in Life: The Case of Military Service and War', Military Psychology, 3 (1991), 215-331; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives', Developmental Psychology, 22 (1986), 233-45; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans', Sociological Forum, 2 (1987), 449-72.
32. Glen H. Elder Jr, Cynthia Gimbel and Rachel Ivie, 'Turning Points in Life: The Case of Military Service and War', Military Psychology, 3 (1991), 215-331; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives', Developmental Psychology, 22 (1986), 233-45; Glen H. Elder Jr, 'War Mobilization and the Life Course: A Cohort of World War II Veterans', Sociological Forum, 2 (1987), 449-72.
33. M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi, Generations and Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 7-8; Braungart and Braungart, 'Life-Course and Generational Politics', p. 217.
34. M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi, Generations and Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 7-8; Braungart and Braungart, 'Life-Course and Generational Politics', p. 217.
35. Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 8.
36. Stephen Earl Bennett, Apathy in America, 1960-84: Causes and Consequences of Citizens Political Indifference (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers, 1986), pp. 104-5.
37. Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 8.
38. Putnam, Bowling Alone, pp. 268-72.
39. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressure, and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935); Theodore Lowi, 'American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory', World Politics 16 (1964), 677-715; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 57-60; Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992); Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 89-92.
40. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressure, and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935); Theodore Lowi, 'American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory', World Politics 16 (1964), 677-715; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 57-60; Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992); Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 89-92.
41. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressure, and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935); Theodore Lowi, 'American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory', World Politics 16 (1964), 677-715; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 57-60; Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992); Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 89-92.
42. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressure, and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935); Theodore Lowi, 'American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory', World Politics 16 (1964), 677-715; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 57-60; Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992); Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 89-92.
43. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressure, and the Tariff (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935); Theodore Lowi, 'American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory', World Politics 16 (1964), 677-715; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 57-60; Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992); Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 89-92.
44. Paul Pierson, 'When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Change', World Politics, 45 (1993). 595-628.
45. Joe Soss, 'Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action', American Political Science Review, 93 (1999), 363-80; Andrea Louise Campbell, How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003); Suzanne Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement: Policy Feedback Effects of the GI Bill for World War II Veterans', American Political Science Review, 96 (2002), 351-65.
46. Joe Soss, 'Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action', American Political Science Review, 93 (1999), 363-80; Andrea Louise Campbell, How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003); Suzanne Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement: Policy Feedback Effects of the GI Bill for World War II Veterans', American Political Science Review, 96 (2002), 351-65.
47. Joe Soss, 'Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action', American Political Science Review, 93 (1999), 363-80; Andrea Louise Campbell, How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003); Suzanne Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement: Policy Feedback Effects of the GI Bill for World War II Veterans', American Political Science Review, 96 (2002), 351-65.
48. Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement'.
49. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, pp. 270-2.
50. Helen Ingram and Anne Schneider, Policy Design for Democracy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), pp. 93-99.
51. Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement'.
52. Mettler, 'Bringing the State Back In to Civic Engagement'.
53. John Bound and Sarah Turner, 'Going to War and Going to College: Did World War II and the GI Bill Increase Educational Attainment for Returning Veterans?' (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7452, http://www.nber.org/papers/w7452 1999); Thrainn Eggertsson, 'Economic Aspects of Higher Education Taken under the World War II GI Bill of Rights' (doctoral dissertation: Ohio State University, 1972); Carl Curtis Brown, 'An Economic Analysis of the GI Bill Educational Benefits: A Study of Korean and Post-Korean Veterans' (doctoral dissertation: Oklahoma State University, 1979).
54. John Bound and Sarah Turner, 'Going to War and Going to College: Did World War II and the GI Bill Increase Educational Attainment for Returning Veterans?' (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7452, http://www.nber.org/papers/w7452 1999); Thrainn Eggertsson, 'Economic Aspects of Higher Education Taken under the World War II GI Bill of Rights' (doctoral dissertation: Ohio State University, 1972); Carl Curtis Brown, 'An Economic Analysis of the GI Bill Educational Benefits: A Study of Korean and Post-Korean Veterans' (doctoral dissertation: Oklahoma State University, 1979).
55. John Bound and Sarah Turner, 'Going to War and Going to College: Did World War II and the GI Bill Increase Educational Attainment for Returning Veterans?' (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7452, http://www.nber.org/papers/w7452 1999); Thrainn Eggertsson, 'Economic Aspects of Higher Education Taken under the World War II GI Bill of Rights' (doctoral dissertation: Ohio State University, 1972); Carl Curtis Brown, 'An Economic Analysis of the GI Bill Educational Benefits: A Study of Korean and Post-Korean Veterans' (doctoral dissertation: Oklahoma State University, 1979).
56. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, pp. 433-7.
57. US General Accounting Office, Report of Survey: Veterans' Education and Training Program (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951); Norman Frederiksen and W. B. Schrader, Adjustment to College: A Study of 10,000 Veteran and Nonveteran Students in Sixteen American Colleges (Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1951).
58. US General Accounting Office, Report of Survey: Veterans' Education and Training Program (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951); Norman Frederiksen and W. B. Schrader, Adjustment to College: A Study of 10,000 Veteran and Nonveteran Students in Sixteen American Colleges (Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1951).
59. See Appendix B.
60. Questions were drawn from surveys such as the US Census, World Values Survey, General Social Survey, the 1990 Citizen Participation Study conducted by the National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, and various surveys conducted by the US Veterans' Administration.
61. Roger Tourangeau, Lance J. Rips and Kenneth Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 67-83.
62. Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response, pp. 94-5, 146. These measures are discussed further in Appendix A in the website version of this article.
63. See Appendix B.
64. The interviews followed a structured script format but questions were framed in an open-ended fashion and the interviewer posed follow-up questions to some responses.
65. These interviews were conducted in all regions of the United States. Before each trip, letters requesting interviews were sent to about thirty individuals living within a two-hour radius of a base location. Among those who agreed to be interviewed, five to seven individuals were selected who lived in a variety of different neighbourhoods and areas. Individuals' names came from the same lists used for the survey, discussed below.
66. Jennifer Hochschild, What's Fair: American Beliefs About Distributive Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
67. GI Bill usage is the dependent variable rather than level of educational attainment, because the majority of veterans used the benefits to gain vocational training rather than to attend a college or university, and such programmes did not increase veterans' formal education as it is typically measured.
68. J. Bachman, P. O'Malley and L. Johnston, Adolescence to Adulthood: Change and Stability in the Lives of Young Men (Ann Arbor: Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan, Youth in Transition Series, Vol. 6, 1978); R. Rehberg and E. Rosenthal, Class and Merit in the American High School (New York: Longman, 1978); W. H. Sewall and V. Shah, 'Socioeconomic Status, Intelligence, and the Attainment of Higher Education', Sociology of Education, 40 (1967), 1-23.
69. J. Bachman, P. O'Malley and L. Johnston, Adolescence to Adulthood: Change and Stability in the Lives of Young Men (Ann Arbor: Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan, Youth in Transition Series, Vol. 6, 1978); R. Rehberg and E. Rosenthal, Class and Merit in the American High School (New York: Longman, 1978); W. H. Sewall and V. Shah, 'Socioeconomic Status, Intelligence, and the Attainment of Higher Education', Sociology of Education, 40 (1967), 1-23.
70. J. Bachman, P. O'Malley and L. Johnston, Adolescence to Adulthood: Change and Stability in the Lives of Young Men (Ann Arbor: Institute of Social Research, University of Michigan, Youth in Transition Series, Vol. 6, 1978); R. Rehberg and E. Rosenthal, Class and Merit in the American High School (New York: Longman, 1978); W. H. Sewall and V. Shah, 'Socioeconomic Status, Intelligence, and the Attainment of Higher Education', Sociology of Education, 40 (1967), 1-23.
71. This variable consists of fathers' level of education except in thirty-seven cases in which it was not available and mothers' level of education could be substituted. Given the large number of cases still missing data for this variable, which sharply reduced the number of cases in the regressions, the unconditional mean was imputed for data that was still missing. The main results of each regression analysis are the same regardless of whether data is imputed for this variable or not.
72. We chose to use the 1920s rather than the 1930s because it was a more 'normal' time and would be likely to indicate more about the persistent socio-economic status of families than the Depression Era, when so many fell into worse living conditions than they experienced generally.
73. Lester W. Milbrath and M. L. Goel, Political Participation: How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics? 2nd edn (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1977), p. 91.
74. See Appendix Table A3 for descriptive statistics of each variable included in the models of this article.
75. Each individual variable was coded 0 or 1 for each time period, 1950-64, 1965-79 and 1980-98.
76. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, p. 73.
77. We have chosen not to use lagged variables of predicted values of political activity in prior periods as independent variables in latter periods. Our reasons are two-fold. First, we do not have longitudinal data. Secondly, our purpose is to explain variation in determinants from period to period. Inclusion of the lagged effects would amount to use of a statistically redundant variable, and it would obscure the very variation that is of interest.
78. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality; Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), pp. 35-6; Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 8.
79. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality; Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), pp. 35-6; Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 8.
80. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality; Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), pp. 35-6; Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 8.
81. Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, chap. 15.
82. The number of cases included in each regression throughout this article is less than the total number of respondents and the number varies from one table to the next because of missing data. Respondents were asked to complete a twelve-page mail survey that included over 200 individual questions. Although the proportion that answered each question was high, the subsamples in the analyses are lower in some cases because a respondent who skipped a single question used in variable construction caused his case to be excluded entirely.
83. Taking a conservative approach, we have elected not to use imputed data in this analysis: imputation methods may introduce bias, and algorithms underlying these methods vary significantly. See W. H. Green, Econometrics Analysis, 4th edn (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000); P. Allison, 'Multiple Imputation for Missing Data: A Cautionary Tale', Sociological Methods and Research, 28 (2000), 301-9.
84. Taking a conservative approach, we have elected not to use imputed data in this analysis: imputation methods may introduce bias, and algorithms underlying these methods vary significantly. See W. H. Green, Econometrics Analysis, 4th edn (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000); P. Allison, 'Multiple Imputation for Missing Data: A Cautionary Tale', Sociological Methods and Research, 28 (2000), 301-9.
85. The bivariate correlation between standard of living in the 1920s and education encouraged while growing up, while significant at the 0.001 level, is low: 0.23. The same is true of standard of living and level of pre-military education, at 0.26. Similarly, the correlation between parents' level of education and both socialization variables is highly significant but low: 0.13 (p < 0.01) for level of pre-military education, and 0.18 (p < 0.001) for being encouraged to pursue an education.
86. Claudia Goldin, 'America's Graduation from High School: The Evolution and Spread of Secondary Schooling in the Twentieth Century', Journal of Economic History, 58 (1998), 345-74, p. 371.
87. Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 4; Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, pp. 418-20, 437-8.
88. Jennings and Niemi, Generations and Politics, chap. 4; Verba, Schlozman and Brady, Voice and Equality, pp. 418-20, 437-8.
89. 2. It should be noted, however, that the purpose here is not to include all the possible explanatory variables but rather to test those deemed most significant.
90. Collinearity diagnostics revealed no problem in using level of education in the second stage model, though pre-military educational level was used in the first model. The fact that veterans used the GI Bill for such a wide range of degrees of additional education alleviates such difficulties.
91. While we have retained the 'predicted values, use of the GI Bill' variable here, 'level of education completed' has been dropped as a lone variable and has been divided into three categories and combined with GI Bill use or non-use in the dummy variables. The reason is that we are testing whether GI Bill use as a resource mattered most at certain levels of education, while still controlling for endogenous characteristics that may have predicted GI Bill use.
92. Although administration did not discriminate by socio-economic background, racial discrimination was commonplace. African Americans experienced unequal treatment to white veterans, especially in the South where both institutions of higher education and the new vocational training programmes were segregated; US Congress, Report on Education and Training Under the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, As Amended, 81st Cong., 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 1970-83; Hilary Herbold, 'Never a Level Playing Field: Blacks and the GI Bill', Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 6 (1994-95), 104-8; Martin D. Jenkins, 'The Availability of Higher Education for Negroes in the Southern States', Journal of Negro Education, 16 (1947), 459-73; William A. Caudill, 'Negro Veterans Return', Monthly Summary of Events and Trends in Race Relations, 3 (Aug.-Sept. 1945), 14-17.
93. Although administration did not discriminate by socio-economic background, racial discrimination was commonplace. African Americans experienced unequal treatment to white veterans, especially in the South where both institutions of higher education and the new vocational training programmes were segregated; US Congress, Report on Education and Training Under the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, As Amended, 81st Cong., 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 1970-83; Hilary Herbold, 'Never a Level Playing Field: Blacks and the GI Bill', Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 6 (1994-95), 104-8; Martin D. Jenkins, 'The Availability of Higher Education for Negroes in the Southern States', Journal of Negro Education, 16 (1947), 459-73; William A. Caudill, 'Negro Veterans Return', Monthly Summary of Events and Trends in Race Relations, 3 (Aug.-Sept. 1945), 14-17.
94. Although administration did not discriminate by socio-economic background, racial discrimination was commonplace. African Americans experienced unequal treatment to white veterans, especially in the South where both institutions of higher education and the new vocational training programmes were segregated; US Congress, Report on Education and Training Under the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, As Amended, 81st Cong., 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 1970-83; Hilary Herbold, 'Never a Level Playing Field: Blacks and the GI Bill', Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 6 (1994-95), 104-8; Martin D. Jenkins, 'The Availability of Higher Education for Negroes in the Southern States', Journal of Negro Education, 16 (1947), 459-73; William A. Caudill, 'Negro Veterans Return', Monthly Summary of Events and Trends in Race Relations, 3 (Aug.-Sept. 1945), 14-17.
95. Although administration did not discriminate by socio-economic background, racial discrimination was commonplace. African Americans experienced unequal treatment to white veterans, especially in the South where both institutions of higher education and the new vocational training programmes were segregated; US Congress, Report on Education and Training Under the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, As Amended, 81st Cong., 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 1970-83; Hilary Herbold, 'Never a Level Playing Field: Blacks and the GI Bill', Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 6 (1994-95), 104-8; Martin D. Jenkins, 'The Availability of Higher Education for Negroes in the Southern States', Journal of Negro Education, 16 (1947), 459-73; William A. Caudill, 'Negro Veterans Return', Monthly Summary of Events and Trends in Race Relations, 3 (Aug.-Sept. 1945), 14-17.
96. Paul Pierson, 'When Effect Becomes Cause', World Politics, 45 (1993), 595-628; Douglas Arnold, The Logic of Congressional Action (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 47-51.
97. Paul Pierson, 'When Effect Becomes Cause', World Politics, 45 (1993), 595-628; Douglas Arnold, The Logic of Congressional Action (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990), 47-51.
98. Norman H. Nie, Jane Junn and Kenneth Stehlik-Barry, Education and Democratic Citizenship in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
99. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
100. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
101. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
102. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
103. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
104. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 2; Martin P. Wattenberg, Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980); Ruy A. Texeiera, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992); Steven J. Rosentone and John Mark Hansen, Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America (New York: Macmillan, 1993); Jennings and Stoker, 'Generations and Civic Engagement'.
105. Putnam, Bowling Alone, chap. 14.
106. Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), p. 21
107. Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter, p. 22.
108. Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter, p. 83.
109. Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter, pp. 56, 57, 64.
110. Campbell, How Policies Make Citizens.
111. Suzanne Mettler and Andrew Milstein, '"A Sense of the State": Tracking the Role of the American Administrative State in Citizens' Lives Over Time' (paper prepared for delivery at Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Political Science Association, Chicago, 2003).
112. Thomas W. Mangione, Mail Surveys: Improving the Quality (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995), pp. 34-6; Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response, pp. 67-91.
113. Thomas W. Mangione, Mail Surveys: Improving the Quality (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995), pp. 34-6; Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response, pp. 67-91.
114. Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response, p. 94; Floyd Fowler, Jr., Survey Research Methods (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984), pp. 92-3.
115. Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response, p. 94; Floyd Fowler, Jr., Survey Research Methods (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984), pp. 92-3.
116. Tourangeau, Rips and Rasinski, The Psychology of Survey Response.
117. New York Times, 'Ravages of time', Week in Review section, 4 June 2000, p. 3.
118. US President's Commission on Veterans' Pensions. Veterans' Benefits in the United States, Part A (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1956), p. 315.