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1
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0006774290
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REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE ON LAW SCHOOLS AND THE PROFESSION: NARROWING THE GAP
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The law-related skills are, in the order listed by the Report, (2) legal analysis and reasoning, (3) legal research, (8) litigation and alternative dispute-resolution procedures, and (10) recognizing and resolving legal ethical dilemmas. The more general skills are (1) problem solving, (4) factual investigation, (5) communication, (6) counseling, (7) negotiation, and (9) the organization and management of legal work. AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SECTION ON LEGAL EDUCATION AND ADMISSION TO THE BAR, LEGAL EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT - AN EDUCATIONAL CONTINUUM (REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE ON LAW SCHOOLS AND THE PROFESSION: NARROWING THE GAP) 135 (1992) (the "MacCrate Report," named for Robert MacCrate, Esq., Chair of the Taskforce).
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(1992)
Legal Education and Professional Development - An Educational Continuum
, pp. 135
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2
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8844284227
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1999 Partners Survey
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June
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1999 Partners Survey, AM. LAW., June 1999, at 79, 80 (citing 65% "rainmaker" partners and 66% of non-rainmaker partners).
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(1999)
Am. Law.
, pp. 79
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5
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0003430412
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ALLEN NEWELL & HERBERT A. SIMON, HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING 72 (1972). They go on to write: The desired object may be very tangible (an apple to eat) or abstract (an elegant proof for a theorem). It may be specific (that particular apple over there) or quite general (something to appease hunger). It may be a physical object (an apple) or a set of symbols (the proof of a theorem). The actions involved in obtaining desired objects include physical actions (walking, reaching, writing), perceptual activities (looking, listening), and purely mental activities (judging the similarity of two symbols, remembering a scene, and so on). Id.
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(1972)
Human Problem Solving
, pp. 72
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Newell, A.1
Simon, H.A.2
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6
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0010966641
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Lay Lawyering
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Along the same lines, Gerald Lopez has suggested that problem solving involves "perceiving that the world we would like varies from the world as it is and trying to move the world in the desired direction." Gerald P. Lopez, Lay Lawyering, 32 U.C.L.A. L. REV. 1, 2 (1984). Our only quibble with this definition is that some problems are best solved, not by changing the external world, but by changing the inner world of our desires.
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(1984)
U.C.L.A. L. Rev.
, vol.32
, pp. 1
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Lopez, G.P.1
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7
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84866797808
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NEWELL & SIMON, supra, at 59-85,809-34. "Problem space" is a complex concept, embracing many more components than the possible paths, but for present purposes it suffices to focus on the paths
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NEWELL & SIMON, supra, at 59-85,809-34. "Problem space" is a complex concept, embracing many more components than the possible paths, but for present purposes it suffices to focus on the paths.
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8
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8844273898
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note
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Our representation of the problem, showing the main paths as places to eat and the sub-paths as types of cuisine (rather than vice versa) is somewhat arbitrary and reflects an assumption about the actors' ordering of priorities. Also, each sub-path has sub-paths of its own (e.g., what to order from the menu) that Ned and Ellen must consider before their hunger can be satisfied.
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9
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8844222533
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note
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We do not address the issues of authority and gender presented by Ned and Ellen's shared problem. Imagine, however, how their "negotiation" might have concluded had Ned been the partner and Ellen the associate.
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10
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0003827053
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3d ed.
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Variations of this model appear throughout the literature. See, e.g., MAX H. BAZERMAN, JUDGMENT IN MANAGERIAL DECISIONMAKING 4 (3d ed. 1994); MacCrate Report, supra note 1, at 539.
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(1994)
Judgment in Managerial Decisionmaking
, pp. 4
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Bazerman, M.H.1
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11
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0347713352
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supra note 1
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Variations of this model appear throughout the literature. See, e.g., MAX H. BAZERMAN, JUDGMENT IN MANAGERIAL DECISIONMAKING 4 (3d ed. 1994); MacCrate Report, supra note 1, at 539.
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MacCrate Report
, pp. 539
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13
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8844284225
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Id. at 17, 89
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Id. at 17, 89.
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14
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8844230827
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Id. at 20, 21
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Id. at 20, 21.
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15
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8844225409
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note
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Again, in the process of solving the problem, we may change our understanding of the goal we are pursuing. Id. at 122.
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16
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8844261685
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note
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We'll say more below about the complication that two people's interests must be satisfied. Note, however, that an analogue to Ned's and Ellen's competing interests may often occur within an individual decision maker: The same person could both need a break and want to minimize the time the meal took from work.
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18
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84967417109
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Id. at 204-05
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Id. at 204-05. See also JAMES G. MARCH & HERBERT A. SIMON, ORGANIZATIONS 140-41 (1958) (discussing satisfactory versus optimal standards).
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(1958)
Organizations
, pp. 140-141
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March, J.G.1
Simon, H.A.2
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19
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0002921448
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Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability
-
DANIEL KAHNEMAN ET AL., [hereinafter KAHNEMAN ET AL.]
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This is the phenomenon that cognitive psychologists refer to as "availability bias." See generally Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability, in DANIEL KAHNEMAN ET AL., JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES 163 (1982) [hereinafter KAHNEMAN ET AL.].
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(1982)
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
, pp. 163
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Tversky, A.1
Kahneman, D.2
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20
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8844223899
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See KLEIN, supra note 11, at 65-69 (discussing process of disregarding contradictory evidence); KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18
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See KLEIN, supra note 11, at 65-69 (discussing process of disregarding contradictory evidence); Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, The Simulation Heuristic, in KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, at 201 (addressing mental operation of the simulation heuristic).
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The Simulation Heuristic
, pp. 201
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Kahneman, D.1
Tversky, A.2
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21
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8844238921
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Brown v. United States, 256 U.S. 335, 343 (1921)
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Brown v. United States, 256 U.S. 335, 343 (1921).
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22
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8844234034
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 7-14
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 7-14.
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23
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21844515104
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What Lawyers Know: Lawyering Expertise, Cognitive Science, and the Functions of Theory
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With modifications and an analysis with which he would not necessarily agree, we have borrowed the example from Gary Blasi's excellent article, What Lawyers Know: Lawyering Expertise, Cognitive Science, and the Functions of Theory, 45 J. LEGAL ED. 313, 321-22 (1995).
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(1995)
J. Legal Ed.
, vol.45
, pp. 313
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Blasi, G.1
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24
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8844260198
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Id. at 337
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Id. at 337.
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25
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8844258597
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Id. at 313
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Id. at 313.
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26
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0003126834
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Problem Solving and Cognitive Skill Acquisition
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Michael I. Posner, ed.
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KURT VAN LEHN, Problem Solving and Cognitive Skill Acquisition, in FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE SCIENCE 527, 545-46 (Michael I. Posner, ed., 1989).
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(1989)
Foundations of Cognitive Science
, pp. 527
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Van Lehn, K.1
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27
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8844278181
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 318
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 318.
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28
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8844224687
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VAN LEHN, supra note 25, at 545-49
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VAN LEHN, supra note 25, at 545-49.
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29
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8844244539
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 355
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 355.
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30
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8844275380
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Id.
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Id.
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31
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0000313568
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The Nature and Function of Schemas
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Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds.
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For an overview of schema theory, see generally William F. Brewer & Glenn V. Nakamura, The Nature and Function of Schemas, in 1 HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL COGNITION 119 (Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds., 1984), and David E. Rumelhart, Schemata and the Cognitive System, in 1 HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL COGNITION 161 (Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds., 1984).
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(1984)
Handbook of Social Cognition
, vol.1
, pp. 119
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Brewer, W.F.1
Nakamura, G.V.2
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32
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0000534729
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Schemata and the Cognitive System
-
Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds.
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For an overview of schema theory, see generally William F. Brewer & Glenn V. Nakamura, The Nature and Function of Schemas, in 1 HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL COGNITION 119 (Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds., 1984), and David E. Rumelhart, Schemata and the Cognitive System, in 1 HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL COGNITION 161 (Robert S. Wyer, Jr. & Thomas K. Srull eds., 1984).
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(1984)
Handbook of Social Cognition
, vol.1
, pp. 161
-
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Rumelhart, D.E.1
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33
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0002133262
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Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing
-
E. Tory Higgins et al. eds.
-
For a useful description of the manner in which schemas can distort perception and judgment, see, e.g., Shelley E. Taylor & Jennifer Crocker, Schematic Bases of Social Information Processing, in 1 SOCIAL COGNITION: THE ONTARIO SYMPOSIUM 89 (E. Tory Higgins et al. eds., 1981).
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(1981)
Social Cognition: The Ontario Symposium
, vol.1
, pp. 89
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Taylor, S.E.1
Crocker, J.2
-
34
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8844241273
-
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note
-
Whether the very possession of professional expertise inevitably constrains the expert's understanding of a problem and the range of plausible solutions considered is an interesting question, to which we have no ready answer. Certainly all professionals are susceptible to "competency bias" - the tendency to frame and resolve in terms of their area of expertise, a tendency nicely captured by the quip, "to a hammer, every problem looks like a nail." We began this Article with the observation that "a client with a problem consults a lawyer rather than, say, a psychologist, investment counselor, or business advisor because he perceives the problem to have a significant legal dimension." Imagine the different approaches that these and other professionals might have to the identical problem and, indeed, how differently they might have defined what the problem was.
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36
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8844265086
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 104 (with slight modifications of the text)
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 104 (with slight modifications of the text).
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37
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8844229369
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 355
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Blasi, supra note 22, at 355.
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38
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8844238922
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 95-96
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KLEIN, supra note 11, at 95-96.
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39
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0004146969
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Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood trans., Theatre Arts Books
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CONSTANTIN STANISLAVSKI, AN ACTOR PREPARES 14 (Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood trans., Theatre Arts Books 1948).
-
(1948)
An Actor Prepares
, pp. 14
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Stanislavski, C.1
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40
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21844515675
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On Teaching Professional Judgment
-
See Paul Brest & Linda Krieger, On Teaching Professional Judgment, 69 WASH. L. REV. 527, 529-32 (1994) (discussing lawyers' role in society); Russell Korobkin & Chris Guthrie, Psychology, Economics, and Settlement: A New Look at the Role of the Lawyer, 76 TEX. L. REV. 77 (1997) (discussing lawyers' role in settlements).
-
(1994)
Wash. L. Rev.
, vol.69
, pp. 527
-
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Brest, P.1
Krieger, L.2
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41
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0345984387
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Psychology, Economics, and Settlement: A New Look at the Role of the Lawyer
-
See Paul Brest & Linda Krieger, On Teaching Professional Judgment, 69 WASH. L. REV. 527, 529-32 (1994) (discussing lawyers' role in society); Russell Korobkin & Chris Guthrie, Psychology, Economics, and Settlement: A New Look at the Role of the Lawyer, 76 TEX. L. REV. 77 (1997) (discussing lawyers' role in settlements).
-
(1997)
Tex. L. Rev.
, vol.76
, pp. 77
-
-
Korobkin, R.1
Guthrie, C.2
-
43
-
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8844240491
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-
note
-
These are case studies of the sort traditionally used in business schools that present more or less rich descriptions or scenarios of problems as a client might present them, and challenge law students to identify, analyze, and propose solutions to them.
-
-
-
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44
-
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0003973482
-
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See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); passim 3d ed.
-
See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); ROBERT B. CIALDINI, INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE passim (3d ed. 1993) (discussing effect of social influence); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, 39 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 341, 342-44 (1984) (discussing psychological process involved in making choices in risky and riskless contexts); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, 47 ECONOMETRICA 263, 268-69 (1979) (discussing effects of risk on decision making); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, 59 J. BUS. S251, S257-S260 (1986) (same); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453, 453-55 (1981) (same).
-
(1993)
Influence: Science and Practice
-
-
Cialdini, R.B.1
-
45
-
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0041906967
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Choices, Values, and Frames
-
See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); ROBERT B. CIALDINI, INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE passim (3d ed. 1993) (discussing effect of social influence); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, 39 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 341, 342-44 (1984) (discussing psychological process involved in making choices in risky and riskless contexts); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, 47 ECONOMETRICA 263, 268-69 (1979) (discussing effects of risk on decision making); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, 59 J. BUS. S251, S257-S260 (1986) (same); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453, 453-55 (1981) (same).
-
(1984)
Am. Psychologist
, vol.39
, pp. 341
-
-
Kahneman, D.1
Tversky, A.2
-
46
-
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0000125532
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Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk
-
See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); ROBERT B. CIALDINI, INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE passim (3d ed. 1993) (discussing effect of social influence); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, 39 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 341, 342-44 (1984) (discussing psychological process involved in making choices in risky and riskless contexts); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, 47 ECONOMETRICA 263, 268-69 (1979) (discussing effects of risk on decision making); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, 59 J. BUS. S251, S257-S260 (1986) (same); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453, 453-55 (1981) (same).
-
(1979)
Econometrica
, vol.47
, pp. 263
-
-
Kahneman, D.1
Tversky, A.2
-
47
-
-
0001371984
-
Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions
-
See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); ROBERT B. CIALDINI, INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE passim (3d ed. 1993) (discussing effect of social influence); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, 39 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 341, 342-44 (1984) (discussing psychological process involved in making choices in risky and riskless contexts); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, 47 ECONOMETRICA 263, 268-69 (1979) (discussing effects of risk on decision making); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, 59 J. BUS. S251, S257-S260 (1986) (same); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453, 453-55 (1981) (same).
-
(1986)
J. Bus.
, vol.59
-
-
Tversky, A.1
Kahneman, D.2
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48
-
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0019392722
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The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
-
See, e.g., KAHNEMAN ET AL., supra note 18, passim (discussing effect of cognitive biases); ROBERT B. CIALDINI, INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE passim (3d ed. 1993) (discussing effect of social influence); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, 39 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 341, 342-44 (1984) (discussing psychological process involved in making choices in risky and riskless contexts); Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, 47 ECONOMETRICA 263, 268-69 (1979) (discussing effects of risk on decision making); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, 59 J. BUS. S251, S257-S260 (1986) (same); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453, 453-55 (1981) (same).
-
(1981)
Sci.
, vol.211
, pp. 453
-
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Tversky, A.1
Kahneman, D.2
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51
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3042812840
-
The Case for Settlement Counsel
-
William F. Coyne, Jr. writes: "[T]here are significant incentives for lawyers not to embrace early settlement. These incentives include the need to market services, the desire not to appear weak, the obligation to represent a client zealously, the thirst for justice, and last, but perhaps not least, the desire to maximize income." William F. Coyne, Jr., The Case for Settlement Counsel, 14 OHIO. ST. J. ON DISP. RESOL. 367, 369 (1999).
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(1999)
Ohio. St. J. on Disp. Resol.
, vol.14
, pp. 367
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Coyne Jr., W.F.1
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52
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0009108137
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Toward Another View of Legal Negotiation: The Structure of Problem Solving
-
Carrie Menkel-Meadow, Toward Another View of Legal Negotiation: The Structure of Problem Solving, 31 U.C.L.A. L. REV. 754, 760-61 (1984).
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(1984)
U.C.L.A. L. Rev.
, vol.31
, pp. 754
-
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Menkel-Meadow, C.1
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53
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8844278906
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Id. at 760
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Id. at 760.
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55
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8844221054
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Id. at 29
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Id. at 29.
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56
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8844279877
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A Response to Professor Pipkin
-
Thus, Leonard Riskin uses "problem solver" to denote "a lawyer who focuses on the client's interests as well as legal entitlements, and who can select (with the client) and carry out the most appropriate methods for pursuing those interests." Leonard Riskin, A Response to Professor Pipkin, 50 FLA. L. REV. 757, 757-58 (1998).
-
(1998)
Fla. L. Rev.
, vol.50
, pp. 757
-
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Riskin, L.1
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57
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8844275810
-
The Limits of Adversarial Ethics
-
Deborah L. Rhode ed., forthcoming
-
Carrie Menkel-Meadow, The Limits of Adversarial Ethics, in ETHICS IN PRACTICE (Deborah L. Rhode ed., forthcoming 2000). For an excellent survey of practical approaches to achieving agreement in situations involving multiple participants with multiple interests, see generally THE CONSENSUS BUILDING HANDBOOK: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO REACHING AGREEMENT (Lawrence Susskind et al. eds., 1999) (addressing ideal practices in consensus-building).
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(2000)
Ethics in Practice
-
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Menkel-Meadow, C.1
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58
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0003644273
-
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Carrie Menkel-Meadow, The Limits of Adversarial Ethics, in ETHICS IN PRACTICE (Deborah L. Rhode ed., forthcoming 2000). For an excellent survey of practical approaches to achieving agreement in situations involving multiple participants with multiple interests, see generally THE CONSENSUS BUILDING HANDBOOK: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO REACHING AGREEMENT (Lawrence Susskind et al. eds., 1999) (addressing ideal practices in consensus-building).
-
(1999)
The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement
-
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Susskind, L.1
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59
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8844237420
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Counsel for the Situation: Conflict and Ethical Issues in Representing the Family Business Client
-
Lawrence Sitzmann et al., Counsel for the Situation: Conflict and Ethical Issues in Representing the Family Business Client, 17 ALI-ABA 113 (1998) (quoting Justice Brandeis).
-
(1998)
Ali-Aba
, vol.17
, pp. 113
-
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Sitzmann, L.1
|