The Road to Xanadu: Public and Private Pathways on the History Web

Journal of American History

Volumn 88, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 548-579

  Rosenzweig, Roy ^a  

^a GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 3042525771     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2675105     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. T. H. Nelson, "A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate," Proceedings of the 20th ACM National Conference (1965), 84-100.
2. Nelsons ideas about hypertext were heavily influenced by Vannevar Bush, "As We May Think" (1945);
3. for a reprint of the article and discussions of its influence, see James M. Nyce and Paul Kahn, ed., From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind's Machine (Boston, 1991).
4. Even earlier, in 1938, H. G. Wells talked of creating a "World Encyclopedia" with a true "planetary memory for all mankind":
5. quoted in Michael Lesk, "How Much Information Is There in the World?," unpublished paper, 1997 . (Unless otherwise noted, the Web references in this article were rechecked online on May 5, 2001.)
6. Theodor Holm Nelson, "Xanalogical Structure, Needed Now More than Ever. Parallel Documents, Deep Links to Content, Deep Versioning, and Deep Re-Use," ACM Computing Surveys, 31 (Dec. 1999) ;
7. see also Ted Nelson, "Who I Am: Designer, Generalist, Contrarian Theodor Holm Nelson, 1937-" ;
8. and Theodor Holm Nelson, "Opening Hypertext: A Memoir," in Literacy Online: The Promise (and Peril) of Reading and Writing with Computers, ed. Myron C.Tuman (Pittsburgh, 1992), 43-57.
9. Gary Wolf, "The Curse of Xanadu," Wired, 3 (June 1995) ; Theodor Holm Nelson,
10. "Errors in 'The Curse of Xanadu,' by Gary Wolf," in Andrew Pam, Xanadu Australia .
11. For a history of the development of the Internet, see John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future: From Radio Days to Internet Years in a Lifetime (Woodstock, 2000), 229-63.
12. Centralist, Contrarian Theodor Holm Nelson, 1937-" ; and Theodor Holm Nelson,
13. "Opening Hypertext: A Memoir," in Literacy Online: The Promts: (and Peril) of Reading and Writing with Computers, ed. Myron C.Tuman (Pittsburgh, 1992), 43-57.
14. Gary Wolf, "The Curse of Xanadu," Wired, 3 (June 1995) ; Theodor Holm Nelson,
15. "Errors in 'The Curse of Xanadu,' by Gary Wolf," in Andrew Pam, Xanadu Australia .
16. For a history of the development of the Internet, see John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future: From Radio Days to Internet Years in a Lifetime (Woodstock, 2000), 229-63.
17. For detailed information on Web search engines, see the materials at Search Engine Watch .
18. Search Engine Watch and other commentators currently rate Google the best overall Web search tool.
19. U.S. Department of Commerce, The Emerging Digital Economy (Washington, 1998),
20. quoted in Stephen Segaller, Nerds 2.01: A Brief History of the Internet (New York, 1998), 14.
21. "Sizing Up the Web," New York Times, Dec. 11, 2000, p. C4.
22. All New York Times articles cited here are available online (generally for a per-article fee of S2.50)
23. at The New York Times on the Web and (for a library subscription fee)
24. through Lexis-Nexls Academic Universe ; where a page number is cited,
25. the article was first consulted in the print version of the Times; where a specific URL (uniform resource locator) is cited, the article is available online for free. Office of Research, OCLC (Online Computer Library Center, Inc.), "Web Statistics," in Web Characterization Project .
26. Coogle . Peter Lyman and Hal R. Varian, "How Much Information?," Journal of Electronic Publishing, 6 (Dec. 2000) . BrightPlanet,
27. "The Deep Web: Surfacing Hidden Value," in BrightPlanet.com, Complete Planet ; Lisa Guernsey,
28. "Mining the 'Deep Web' with Specialized Drills," New York Times, Jan. 25, 2001.
29. The Internet Archive intends "to permanently preserve a record of public material" on the Internet. At the present time, however, use of their archive requires programming skills, and I did not receive a response to the request to use the archive that I submitted in October 2000. For a discussion of the need to archive the Web (and a complaint about lack of response from the Internet Archive),
30. see Richard Wiggins, "The Unnoticed Presidential Transition: Whither Whitehouse.gov?," First Monday, 6 (Jan. 8, 2001) .
31. Michael O'Malley and Roy Rosenzweig, "Brave New World or Blind Alley? American History on the World Wide Web," Journal of American History, 84 (June 1997), 138.
32. See "Collections Currently in Progress," in Library of Congress, American Memory: Historical Collections for the National Digital Library .
33. See, more generally, Committee on an Information Technology Strategy for the Library of Congress of National Research Council, LC21: A Digital Strategy for the Library of Congress (Washington, 2000) .
34. As of December 2000, the NDLP had 5,772,967 items online, but some American Memory materials are available as a result of the Ameritech Program and others as a result of cooperative agreements with other institutions. NDL Reference Team to Roy Rosenzweig, e-mails, Feb. 15, 2001 (in Rosenzweig's possession).
35. Peter R. Henriques, "The Final Struggle between George Washington and the Grim King: Washington's Attitude toward Death and an Afterlife," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 107 (Winter 1999),75,95-96. Henriques discussed his methodology with Rosenzweig on November 6, 2000.
36. OCLC, "Web Statistics"; Peter B. Hirtle, "Free and Fee: Future Information Discovery and Access," D-Lib Magazine, 7 (Jan. 2001) .
37. Kevin M. Guthrie, "Revitalizing Older Published Literature: Preliminary Lessons from the Use of JSTOR," paper presented at the conference "Economics and Usage of Digital Library Collections," Ann Arbor, March 2324, 2000 .
38. See also "Editors Interview: Developing a Digital Preservation Strategy for JSTOR, an interview with Kevin Guthrie," RLG DigiNetvs, 4 (no. 4, 2000) . John Spargo,
39. "The Influence of Karl Marx on Contemporary Socialism," American Journal of Sociology, 16 (July 1910), 21-40.
40. Fred Shapiro's discoveries are discussed in Ethan Bronner, "You Can Look It Up, Hopefully," New York Times, Jan. 10, 1999 .
41. Barbara Quint, "Gale Group's InfoTrac OneFile Creates Web-Based Periodical Collection for Libraries," Information Today NewsBreaks, Oct. 16, 2000 .
42. See ; "Search \Vebsites" in Center for History and New Media .
43. Choice quoted in William G. Thomas and Alice E. Carter, The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites (Wilmington, 2000), xiii;
44. Library of Congress, American Memory ;
45. National Park Service, Links to the Past ;
46. Virginia Center for Digital History ;
47. Thomas R. Fasulo, Battle of Olitstee ;
48. Scott McKay, Official Historic Website of the 10th Texas Infantry .
49. "Facts and Statistics," in Family Search, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .
50. Ibid. April Leigh Helm and Matthew L. Helm, Genealogy Online for Dummies (New York, 1999).
51. Diane Ravitch, ed., The American Reader: Words That Moved a Nation (New York, 1990);
52. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, "The Solitude of Self," in American Public Address, 1644-1935,
53. University of Arkansas Supplement to Communication 4353, Bernadette Mink ; "Niagara Movement Declaration of Principles, 1905"
54. in American History Class Enhancement Pages, Thomas Martin ;
55. M. Carey Thomas, "Higher Education for Women," in Mrs. Pojer's History Classes' Home Page,
56. Susan M. Pojer .
57. The last two sites were accessed in October 2000 but were no longer available in May 2001. In the first instance, the material moved to a gated WebCT server.
58. W. E. Burghart Du Bois, "The Talented Tenth," in Mr. Kenyadas Neighborhood,
59. Richard Kenyada .
60. Joe Hill, "The Preacher and the Slave," in History in Song,
61. Manfred J. Helfert .
62. Dean B. Mclntyre, "'Lift Every Voice'-100 Years Old," in General Board of Discipleship, United Methodist Church .
63. Alice Duer Miller, "Evolution," in poet ch'I, Kevin Taylor .
64. Carl Becker, "Everyman His Own Historian," American HistoricalReview, 37 (Jan. 1932), 221-36.
65. BoondocksNet.com ; Jim Zwick to Rosenzweig, e-mails, Nov. 1, 27, 2000 (in Rosenzweig's possession). Some scholars will face copyright and archival restrictions in placing their research materials online but a surprisingly large percentage of materials that historians use-books, magazines, and newspapers from before 1923 and government documents, for example-are in the public domain.
66. "What Is H-Net?," in H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online, MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences OnLine, Michigan State University .
67. Thomas and Carter, Civil War on the Web, xvi-xbc;
68. Golden Ink, About North Georgia , quoted ibid., xix.
69. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Solitude of self, address delivered by Mrs. Stanton before the Committee of the Judiciary of the United States Congress, Monday, January 18, 1892 (Washington, 1915),
70. in Rare and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress, Votes for Women: Selections from the National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection, 1848-1921 .
71. Voice of America, The Century in Sound: An Americans Perspective ;
72. "Socialist Eugene V. Debs speaks during the presidential campaign of 1904," in Eyewitness: History through the Eyes of Those Who Lived It, Ibis Communications, Inc. ;
73. "Eugene V. Debs," in Pluralism and Unity,
74. David Bailey, David Halsted, and Michigan State University .
75. The voice is correctly identified as that of an actor in Department of History, University at Albany, State University of New York, U.S. Labor and Industrial History World Wide Web Audio Archive .
76. For discussion of the provenance of the Debs speech, see Roy Rosenzweig and Stephen Brier, Who Built America? From the Centennial Celebration of 1876 to the GreatWarofl9l4(co-v.ou) (New York, 1993), 352.
77. See, for example, "The Willie Lynch Speech of 1712," in Shepp's Place, Will Shepperson ; and Willie Lynch,
78. "How to Control the Black Man for At Least 300 Years," in KohlBlackTimes.com .
79. The best online commentary on the Lynch speech is Anne Cleëster Taylor, "The Slave Consultant's Narrative: The Life of an Urban Myth?," m African Missouri,
80. Anne Cleëster Taylor . See also Mike Adams,
81. "In Search of Willie Lynch," Baltimore Sun, Feb. 22, 1998, p. 1 (available online in LexisNexis Academic Universe). Of course, many real documents make points similar to those in the Lynch speech.
82. For a discussion of the inclusiveness of virtual libraries, see James J. O'Donnell, Avatars of the Word: From Papyrus to Cyberspace (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 29-43.
83. Kendra Mayfield, "Library of Congress Goes Digital," Wired News, Jan. 19, 2001 .
84. For list of sponsors, see "A Unique Public-Private Partnership Supporting the National Digital Library," in American Memory, Library of Congress .
85. See "Library of Congress/Ameritech National Digital Library Competition," ibid. .
86. For an astute discussion of Valley of the Shadow ,
87. see Gary J. Kornblith, "Venturing into the Civil War, Virtually: A Review," Journal of American History, 88 (June 2001), 145-51 .
88. Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute and Institute for Learning Technologies, New Deal Network ; Center for History and New Media and American Social History Project,
89. History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web .
90. History Matters also includes annotated lists of history \Veb sites, online assignments, interactive exercises on the historian's craft, and teaching forums with leading scholars and teachers.
91. University of North Carolina Libraries, Documenting the American South .
92. Special Projects Program in the Information and Intelligent Systems Division of the Directorate for Computer and Information Science Engineering, National Science Foundation, Digital Libraries Initiative .
93. Other agencies such as NEU participated in the initiative, but most of the money came from NSF. Mark Lawrence Kornbluh et al., National Gallery of the Spoken Word .
94. Wendy Lougee to Rosenzweig, e-mail, Nov. 3,2000 (in Rosenzweig's possession); Maria Bonn, project director for MOA, provided helpful information on the project in a phone conversation with Rosenzweig, Nov. 9, 2000.
95. Steven Gelber quoted in Nancy Ross-Flanigan, "The Making of America," Michigan Today (Spring 1998) .
96. "Thoughtful weeding of reformatted material is a necessary element of an overall collection management program in the nation's major research libraries": University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service, "Principles and Considerations for University of Michigan Library Subject Specialists" (Feb. 2000) .
97. Nicholson Baker, "Deadline: The Author's Desperate Bid to Save America's Past," New Yorker, July 24, 2000, pp. 42-61.
98. See also Nicholson Baker, Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper (New York, 2001).
99. Association of Research Libraries, "Talking Points in Response to Nicholson Baker's Article in the 24 July New Yorker" .
100. See also Barbara Quint, "Don't Burn Books! Burn Librarians!! A Review of Nicholson Baker's Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper" Searcher 9.6 (June 2001)
101. Thanks to Josh Brown for his help with this issue. Searching by the word is only possible where the text has been converted into codes that the computer understands as letters and words. The term "digitizing" can refer confusingly both to scanning an image of a page of text and to converting those images of letters into codes that the computer can understand as letters. It is relatively easy to scan thousands of pages of text as images; it is much harder to get that into machine-readable form. That requires either retyping or an OCR (optical character recognition) system. MOA uses an automated OCR system, which gives very good but not perfect results.
102. Gelber quoted in Ross-Flanigan, "Making of America." Association of Research Libraries, "Summary of Fiscal Year 1999 Appropriation Request for the National Endowment for the Humanities," in Association of Research Libraries ;
103. Stanley N. Katz, "Rethinking the Humanities Endowment," Chronicle of Higher Education, Jan. 5, 2001, pp. B5-10.
104. All Chronicle articles cited here are available online to subscribers at ; where a page number is cited, the article was first consulted in the print version of the Chronicle.
105. LC21; James O'Donnell quoted in Katie Hafner, "Saving the Nations Digital Legacy," New York Times, July 27, 2000, p. Gl. See also Mayfield, "Library of Congress Goes Digital."
106. Daren Fonda, "Copyright's Crusader," Boston Globe Magazine, Aug. 29, 1999,
107. quoted in Dennis S. Karjala, Opposing Copyright Extension .
108. See, for example, Arc Washington Update, March 27, 1998 .
109. Rosenzweig and Brier, Who Built America? From the Centennial of 1876 to the Great War of1914 (CD-ROM);
110. Roy Rosenzweig et al., Who Built America? From the Great War of1914 to the Dawn of the Atomic Age in 1946 (CD-ROM) (New York, 2000).
111. Kathy Perry, director of VIVA, provided information to Rosenzweig in several conversations during December 2000 and January 2001.
112. Contentville .
113. Corbis and Getty "have been gobbling up smaller agencies around the world": Gordon Black, "Corbis Courts Online Consumers," Seattle Times, Nov. 16, 1999, p. D6.
114. See also Kristi Heim, "Digital Image Is Everything as Gates, Getty Vie for Control of 'Net Art," Denver Post, March 5> 2000, p. 1-03
115. (both available online through Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe). Corbis Corporation, Corbis-The Place for Pictures Online .
116. EBSCO'S full-text holdings in history do not appear to be as deep as those from ProQuest and EAA. For example, EBSCO does not offer such standards as Journal of Women's History, Journal of Negro History, and Journal of Southern History, which are in EAA.
117. On the electronic book ventures, see Goldie Blumenstyk, "Digital-Library Company Plans to Charge Students a Monthly Fee for Access," Chronicle of Higher Education, Nov. 14, 2000;
118. Andrew R. Albanese, "E-Book Gold Rush: Welcome to the Electronic Backlist," Lingua Franca, 10 (Sept. 2000) ; Jennifer Darwin, "Storybook Beginning: Questia Founder Follows Novel Script to Launch Online College Library," Houston Business Journal, April 7, 2000 ; Lisa Guernsey, "The Library as the Latest Web Venture," New York Times, June 15, 2000; LC21, box 1.3;
119. Tom Fowler, "$90 Million in Funding for Questia," Houston Chronicle, Aug. 24,2000, business p. 1 (available online in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe);
120. and Kendra Mayfield, "The Quest for E-Knowledge," Wind News, Feb. 5, 2001 . For survey, see David Thelen, "The Practice of American History," Journal of American History, 81 (Dec. 1994), 953. History is not particularly well represented in the NetLibrary collection so far. Some other "e-book" vendors concentrate on particular fields, for example, information technology (ITKnowledge) and marketing and finance (Books24x7).
121. See HarpWeek, "Purchase Information," in HarpWeek . HarpWeek may also begin levying annual maintenance fees in 2002.
122. Robert Thibadeau to Rosenzweig, e-mails, Nov. 1, 2, 2000 (in Rosenzweig's possession); The HistoricalNeiv York Times Project . For unreadable pages, see, for example, Aug. 6, 1860, and Aug. 6, 1863.
123. Michael Jensen, "Mission Possible: Giving It Away While Making It Pay," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of American University Presses, Austin, Tex., June 22, 1999 (emphasis in original).
124. On the History Cooperative, see Michael Grossberg, "Devising an Online Future for Journals of History," Chronicle of Higher Education, April 21, 2000. William and Mary Quarterly, Weitern Historical Quarterly, History Teacher, and Law and History Review will soon join the Journal of American History and the American Historical Review in the History Cooperative. (Full disclosure: I was a member of the Journal of American History committee that developed the cooperative project.)
125. For an experiment in hypertext publishing, see the articles in Roy Rosenzweig, ed., "Hypertext Text Scholarship and American Studies" ; and Roy Rosenzweig, ed., "Forum on Hypertext Scholarship: AQ as Web-Zine: Responses to AQ'S Experimental Online Issue," American Quarterly, 51 (June 1999), 237-82 (available online to subscribers at Project Muse ). See also Roy Rosenzweig, "The Riches of Hypertext for Scholarly Journals," Chronicle of Higher Education, March 17, 2000.
126. "arXiv Monthly Submission Rate Statistics," in arXiv.org e-Print archive ; Stevan Harnad, "The Future of Scholarly Skywriting," in "i in the Sky: Visions of the Information Future," ed. A. Scammell, Aslib, Nov. 1999 .
127. See also Vincent Kiernan, "'Open Archives' Project Promises Alternative to Costly Journals," Chronicle of Higher Education, Dec. 3, 1999;
128. Herbert Van de Sompel and Carl Lagoze, "The Santa Fe Convention of the Open Archives Initiative," D-Lib Magazine, G (Feb. 2000) ; Stevan Harnad, "Free at Last: The Future of PeerReviewed Journals," D-Lib Magazine, 5 (Dec. 1999) .
129. Jensen, "Mission Possible."
130. David D. Kirkpatrick, "Librarians Unite against Cost of Journals," New York Times, Dec. 25, 2000, p. C5. Data on library budgets provided by Mary Case of the Association of Research Libraries and published in ARL Statistics, 1998-99 (Washington, 2000);
131. ARL Supplementary Statistics, 1998-99 (Washington, 2000). On the crisis in scholarly publishing,
132. see, for example, Sanford G. Thatcher, "Thinking Systematically about the Crisis in Scholarly Communication" and other papers presented at the conference "The Specialized Scholarly Monograph in Crisis; or, How Can I Get Tenure If You Won't Publish My Book?," Washington, Sept. 11-12, 1997 ; and Roy Rosenzweig, "How Can I Get Tenure If You Won't Publish My Book?," Organization of American Historians Newsletter, 29 (Nov. 1997), 5.
133. Christopher Stern, "Freelancers Get Day in Court," Washington Post, Nov. 7, 2000, p. E3.
134. David D. Kirkpatrick, "Publisher Set to Split E-Book Revenue," New York Times, Nov. 7, 2000, p. C2.
135. The National Coalition of Independent Scholars (NCIS) successfully lobbied the Modern Languages Association to pass two resolutions on access for independent scholars at their December 2000 annual meeting in Washington, D.C. See Margaret Delacy, "A History of NCIS" ; and NCIS, "Modern Language Association Overwhelmingly Passes Resolutions concerning Access to Resources by Independent Scholars" , both in National Coalition of Independent Scholars .
136. On network effects and economies of scale, see Philip E. Agre, "The Market Logic of Information," paper presented at Interface 5, Sept. 2000;
137. Carl Shapiro and Hal Varian, Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy (Boston, 1998); and Philip E. Agre, "Notes and Recommendations," Red Rock Eater Digest, March 3, 1998 .
138. "State Has Eight Firms on Forbes' List of Biggest 500 Private," Associated Press State & Local Wire, Nov. 16, 2000 (available in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe); "EBSCO Publishing Corporate Quick Facts," in EBSCO Publishing Homepage . UMI is considering plans to turn the page images into searchable text, potentially a massive project. Paula J. Hane, "UMI Announces Digital Vault Initiative," Information Today, Newsbreak, July 13, 1998 . Fora report that digital facsimiles will be provided, see "Times Pages to Be Available on Internet," New York Times, Jan. 13, 2001 . I have heard reports that the pages will ultimately be converted to searchable form through a combination of OCR and retyping of headlines and first paragraphs.
139. BigChalk: The Education Network .
140. On the Internet boom, see Hal R. Varian, "Economic Scene," New York Times, Feb. 6, 2001, p. C2. Lightspan.com . As of January 2001, most of the links to materials in history said: "We're currently gathering the best educational links for this topic. Soon, you'll have access to expert-selected Web sites, encyclopedia articles, learning activities, lesson plans, and more."
141. The list of best \Veb sites was not officially launched when I viewed it on February 6, 2001, but it already contained a long list of Civil War sites. "The History Channel.Com Network," in The History Channel.com . Cowles History Group, Inc.,"The HistoryNet: Advertiser Information," in The HistoryNet ; "About Us: Our Story," in About.com, About-The Human Internet .
142. Oakleigh Thorne quoted in Sarah Carr and Goldie Blumensryk, "The Bubble Bursts for Education DotCorns," Chronicle of Higher Education, June 30, 2000, pp. A39-40.
143. "Discovery.Com Workers Get Pink Slips," Washington Post, Nov. 14, 2000, p. C7.
144. "Online Advertising Rate Card Prices and Ad Dimensions," Aug. 14, 2000, in AdRelevance, Jupiter Media Metrix ; Paul F. Nunes, "Wake-up Call for Internet Firms Overly Dependent on Ad Revenues," BusinessWorU (Philippines), June 6, 2000 (available in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe).
145. See, for example, Roy Rosenzweig, "Marketing the Past: American Heritage and Popular History in the United States," in Presenting the Past: Essays on History and the Public, ed. Susan Porter Benson, Stephen Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig (Philadelphia, 1986), 21-49.
146. Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: The Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920-1934 (Washington, 1994);
147. Stuart Elliott, "Banners' Ineffectiveness Stalls an Up-and-Coming Rival to TV," New York Times, Dec. 11, 2000, p. C4; "Dot Corns in the Driver's Seat," Sept. 5, 2000, in AdRelevance ; "The Failure of New Media," Economist, Aug. 19, 2000.
148. David D. Kirkpatrick, "Media Giants in Joint Deal for Harcourt," New York Times, Oct. 28, 2000, p. Cl. See also Richard Poynder, "The Debate Heats Up-Are Reed Elsevier and Thomson Corp. Monopolists?," Information Today Newsbreaks (30 April 2001) .
149. Brett D. Fromson, "On the Level: Is This a Stock 'Primed' for an Uptick?," The Street.com, Dec. 5, 2000 . (The merger \vas completed March 1, 2001.) "Primedia's Loss Exceeds Expectations, Taking Hit from New-Media Businesses," WSJ.Com, Feb. 2, 2001 , accessed online Feb. 17, 2001, but not accessible on May 5, 2001.
150. Victoria Murphy, "Unlocking the Vault," Fortes Magazine, Nov. 13, 2000 (Forbes now requires that you register to access its articles); Steve Silberman, "Putting History Online," Wired News, June 26, 1998 . See also Péter Jacsö, "With Experience and Content, UMI Is Poised for a Conversion Megaproject," Information Today, Sept. 8, 1998 and the enhanced version ; "Bell & Howell's ProQuest Digital Vault Initiative Leaps Forward This Spring," press release, March 22, 2000, in Bell a- Howell Learning and Information .
151. Neal Stephenson, Snow Crash (New York, 1992), 22.
152. Florence Olsen, "'Open Access' is the Wave of the Information Future, Scholar Says," Chronicle of Higher Education, Aug. 18, 2000; \Villiam Y. Arms, "Automated Digital Libraries: How Effectively Can Computers Be Used for the Skilled Tasks of Professional Librarianship?," D-Lib Magazine, 6 (July-Aug. 2000) .
153. For a recent effort by librarians and scientists to fight back against the rapacious prices of commercially owned science journals, see Scholarly Publishing & Academic Resources Coalition and Triangle Research Libraries Network, Declaring Independence: A Guide to Creating Community-Controlled Science Journals (Washington, 2001) .
154. Nelson, "A File Structure for the Complex.