Strategies for controlling cassava mosaic virus disease in Africa

Plant Pathology

Volumn 54, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 587-614

  Thresh, J M ^a   Cooter, R J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Begomovirus; Bemisia tabaci; Cassava; Cultural control; Insecticides; Manihot esculenta; Mild strain protection; Phytosanitation; Resistant varieties; Whitefly vector

Indexed keywords

CASSAVA; CROP DAMAGE; CROPPING PRACTICE; DISEASE SEVERITY; PLANT-INSECT INTERACTION; RESEARCH WORK; VIRAL DISEASE;

AFRICA; CENTRAL AFRICA; EAST AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

AFRICAN CASSAVA MOSAIC VIRUS; BEGOMOVIRUS; GEMINIVIRIDAE; MANIHOT ESCULENTA;

EID: 30344459519     PISSN: 00320862     EISSN: 13653059     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2005.01282.x     Document Type: Review

References (233)

1. Adejare GO Coutts RH, 1981. Eradication of cassava mosaic disease from Nigerian cassava clones by meristem-tip cultivation. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 1, 25 32.
2. Adipala E Byabakama BA Ogenga-Latigo MW Otim-Nape GW, 1998. Effect of planting date and varietal resistance on the development of cassava mosaic virus disease in Uganda. African Plant Protection 4, 71 9.
3. Ahohuendo BC Sarkar S, 1995. Partial control of the spread of African cassava mosaic virus in Benin by intercropping. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 102, 249 56.
4. Akano AO Atiri GI Ng SYC Asiedu R, 1997. Effect of African cassava mosaic disease on growth and yield components of virus-tested cassava genotypes derived from meristem culture in early and late planting periods in three agroecologies of Nigeria. African Journal of Root and Tuber Crops 2, 44 8.
5. Akano A Dixon AGO Mba C Barrera E Fregene M, 2002. Genetic mapping of a dominant gene conferring resistance to cassava mosaic disease. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 105, 521 5.
6. Akoroda MO Oyinlola AE Gebremeskel T, 1987. Plantable stem supply system for IITA cassava varieties in Oyo State, Nigeria. Agricultural Systems 24, 305 17.
7. Akoroda MO Gebremeskel T Oyinola AE, 1989. Impact of IITA cassava varieties in Oyo State, Nigeria, 1976-85. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 66, 113 20.
8. Almazan AM Theberge RL, 1989. Influence of cassava mosaic virus on cassava leaf-vegetable quality. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 66, 305 8.
9. Ambe JJ, 1993. The effect of planting dates on three cassava diseases in Cameroon. International Journal of Pest Management 39, 309 11.
10. Anonymous, 1988. National Questionnaires: African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control. Special Report to International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/CPI.
11. Anonymous, 1992. Quarantine Implications: Cassava Program, 1987-91. Working document no. 116. Cali, Colombia : CIAT.
12. Anonymous, 1993. How Akwa Ibom overcame a crisis in cassava production. Cassava Newsletter 17, 9 10.
13. Anonymous, 1997. Mastering Mosaic: The Fight for Cassava Production in Uganda. Occasional paper. London, UK : Gatsby Charitable Foundation.
14. Ariyo OA Dixon AGO Atiri GI, 2003. Effect of detopping on disease incidence and symptom severity of African cassava mosaic virus disease (ACMD) on some newly developed cassava cultivars from landraces introgression. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 38, 115 24.
15. Asher CJ Edwards DG Howeler RH, 1980. Nutritional Disorders of Cassava. St Lucia, Australia : University of Queensland.
16. Atiri GI Akano AO, 1995. Disease expression in plants derived from cassava cuttings with different levels of infection with African cassava mosaic virus. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 72, 84 7.
17. Bawden FC, 1950. Plant Viruses and Virus Diseases. Waltham, MA, USA : Chronica Botanica Company.
18. Beck BDA, 1982. Historical perspectives of cassava breeding in Africa. In : Hahn SK Ker ADR, eds. Root Crops in Eastern Africa. Proceedings of a Workshop, Kigali, Rwanda, 1980. Ottawa, Canada : IDRC, 13 8.
19. Bellotti AC, 2002. Arthropod pests. In : Hillocks RJ Bellotti A Thresh JM, eds. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization. Wallingford, UK : CAB International, 209 35.
20. Bellotti AC Arias B, 2001. Host plant resistance to whiteflies with emphasis on cassava as a case study. Crop Protection 20, 813 23.
21. Bennett CW, 1971. The Curly Top Disease of Sugarbeet and Other Plants. Monograph 7. St Paul, MN, USA : APS Press.
22. Berrie LC Palmer KE Rybicki EP Rey MEC, 1998. Molecular characterisation of a distinct South African cassava infecting geminivirus. Archives of Virology 143, 2253 60.
23. Berry S Rey MEC, 2001. Molecular evidence for diverse populations of cassava-infecting begomoviruses in Southern Africa. Archives of Virology 146, 1795 802.
24. Bigirimana S Barumbanze P Obonyo R Legg JP, 2004. First evidence for the spread of East African cassava mosaic virus-Uganda (EACMV-UG) and the pandemic of severe cassava mosaic disease to Burundi. Plant Pathology 53, 231.
25. Bock KR, 1975. Maize streak, cassava latent and other similar viruses. Abstracts of the Third Congress of Virology, Madrid, Spain, 93.
26. Bock KR, 1982. Kenya: avoiding cassava mosaic disease. Span 25, 11 3.
27. Bock KR, 1983. Epidemiology of cassava mosaic disease in Kenya. In : Plumb RT Thresh JM, eds. Plant Virus Epidemiology. Oxford, UK : Blackwell Scientific Publications, 337 47.
28. Bock KR, 1988. Some aspects of the epidemiology of African cassava mosaic virus in coastal districts of Kenya. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 125 30.
29. Bock KR Harrison BD, 1985. African cassava mosaic virus. AAB Descriptions of Plant Viruses No. 297. Wellesbourne, UK : Association of Applied Biologists.
30. Bock KR Woods RD, 1983. Etiology of African cassava mosaic disease. Plant Disease 67, 994 5.
31. Bock KR Guthrie EJ Meredith G, 1978. Distribution, host range, properties and purification of cassava latent virus, a geminivirus. Annals of Applied Biology 90, 361 7.
32. Briant AK Johns R, 1940. Cassava investigations in Zanzibar. East African Agricultural Journal 5, 404 12.
33. Bua A Sserubombwe WS Alicai T Baguma YK Omongo CA Akullo D Tumwesigye S Apok A Thresh JM, 2005. The incidence and severity of cassava mosaic virus disease and the varieties of cassava grown in Uganda: 2003. Roots in press.
34. Byabakama BA Adipala E Ogenga-Latigo MW Tusiime G Otim-Nape GW, 1997. The resistance of improved cassava varieties to cassava mosaic disease in Uganda. African Journal of Plant Protection 7, 45 57.
35. Byabakama BA Adipala E Ogenga-Latigo MW Otim-Nape GW, 1999. The effect of amount and disposition of inoculum on cassava mosaic virus disease development and tuberous root yield of cassava. African Plant Protection 5, 21 9.
36. Calvert LA Thresh JM, 2002. The viruses and virus diseases of cassava. In : Hillocks RJ Thresh JM Bellotti AC, eds. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization. Wallingford, UK : CAB International, 237 60.
37. Carter SE Fresco LO Johnes PG Fairbairn JN, 1992. An Atlas of Cassava in Africa: Historical, Agroecological and Demographic Aspects of Crop Distribution. Cali, Colombia : CIAT.
38. Chant SR, 1958. Studies on the transmission of cassava mosaic virus by Bemisia spp. (Aleyrodidae). Annals of Applied Biology 46, 210 5.
39. Chant SR, 1959. A note on the inactivation of mosaic virus in cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl.) by heat treatment. Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture 27, 55 8.
40. Chant SR Bateman JG Bates DC, 1971. The effect of cassava mosaic virus infection on the metabolism of cassava leaves. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 48, 263 70.
41. Childs AHB, 1957. Trials with virus resistant cassavas in Tanga Province, Tanganyika. East African Agricultural Journal 23, 135 7.
42. Cockcroft L, 2004. Current and projected trends in African agriculture: implications for research strategy. In : Hughes Jd'A Adu BO, eds. Plant Virology in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA/ Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire : ORSTOM, 172 88.
43. Colon L, 1984. Contribution à l'étude de la résistance variétale du manioc ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) vis-à-vis de la mosaïque africaine du manioc. Etude réalisée dans le cadre du programme ORSTOM. Etude de la mosaïque africaine du manioc. Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire : ORSTOM.
44. Colvin J Fishpool LDC Fargette D Sherington J Fauquet C, 1998. Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) trap catches in a cassava field in Côte d'Ivoire in relation to environmental factors and the distribution of African cassava mosaic disease. Bulletin of Entomological Research 88, 369 78.
45. Colvin J Otim-Nape GW Holt J Omongo C Seal S Stevenson P Gibson GI Cooter RJ Thresh JM, 1999. Symbiotic interactions drive whitefly-borne plant virus epidemic disease in Uganda. In : Cooter RJ Otim-Nape GW Bua A Thresh JM, eds. Cassava Mosaic Disease Management in Smallholder Cropping Systems. Chatham, UK : Natural Resources Institute/NARO, 76 86.
46. Colvin J Omongo CA Maruthi MN Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM, 2004. Dual begomovirus infections and high Bemisia tabaci populations: two factors driving the spread of a cassava mosaic disease pandemic. Plant Pathology 53, 577 84.
47. Cooter RJ Otim-Nape GW Bua A Thresh JM, 1999. Cassava Mosaic Disease Management in Small-holder Cropping Systems. Proceedings of a Workshop on CMD Management in Smallholder Cropping Systems, Jinja, Uganda, 1998. Chatham, UK : Natural Resources Institute/NARO.
48. Cours G, 1951. Le Manioc à Madagascar. Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série. B, Biologie Végétale, 3, 203 400.
49. Cours-Darne G, 1968. Improving cassava in Africa. The Abidjan Conference. Agricultural research priorities for economic development in Africa. Proceedings of the US Academy of Sciences 2, 330 9.
50. Cours G Fargette D Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM, 1997. The epidemic of cassava mosaic virus disease in Madagascar in the 1930s-1940s: lessons for the current situation in Uganda. Tropical Science 37, 238 48.
51. Deng D Otim-Nape GW Sangare A Ogwal S Beachy RN Fauquet CM, 1997. Presence of a new virus closely related to East African cassava mosaic geminivirus, associated with cassava mosaic outbreak in Uganda. African Journal of Root and Tuber Crops 2, 23 8.
52. Dengel H-J, 1981. Untersuchungen über das auftreten der imagines von Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) auf verschiedenen manioksorten. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection 88, 355 66.
53. Dittrich V Hassan SO Ernst GH, 1985. Sudanese cotton and the whitefly: a case study of the emergence of a new primary pest. Crop Protection 4, 161 76.
54. Doughty LR, 1958. Cassava breeding for resistance to mosaic and brown streak viruses: a review of 21 years' work. Annual Report, East African Agricultural and Forestry Research Organisation for 1958, 48 55.
55. Dubern J, 1979. Quelques propriétés de la mosaïque Africaine du manioc. 1. La transmission. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift 96, 25 39.
56. Dubern J, 1994. Transmission of African cassava mosaic geminivirus by the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). Tropical Science 34, 82 91.
57. Dulong R, 1971. Le manioc à Madagascar. Agronomie Tropicale 24, 791 829.
58. Egabu J Osiru DSO Adipala E Thresh JM, 2001. The influence of plant population on cassava mosaic disease epidemiology in central Uganda. African Crop Science Journal 5, 439 43.
59. Ekpe EO Chinaka CC, 2000. An assessment of cassava mosaic disease severity in cassava-maize mixture at different NPK levels. African Crop Science Journal 8, 311 6.
60. Eveleens KG, 1983. Cotton-insect control in the Sudan Gezira: analysis of a crisis. Crop Protection 2, 273 87.
61. FAO, 1985. Production Year Book: 1984. Series no. 31, ver. 38. Rome, Italy : FAO.
62. FAO, 2004. Production Year Book: 2003. Series no. 177. Rome, Italy : FAO.
63. Fargette D Fauquet C, 1988. A preliminary study on the influence of intercropping maize and cassava on the spread of African cassava mosaic virus by whiteflies. Aspects of Applied Biology 17, 195 202.
64. Fargette D Thresh JM, 1994. The ecology of African cassava mosaic geminivirus. In : Blakeman JP Williamson B, eds. Ecology of Plant Pathogens. Wallingford, UK : CAB International, 269 82.
65. Fargette D Vié K, 1995. Simulation of the effects of host resistance, reversion, and cutting selection on incidence of African cassava mosaic virus and yield losses in cassava. Phytopathology 85, 370 5.
66. Fargette D Fauquet C Thouvenel J-C, 1985. Field studies on the spread of African cassava mosaic. Annals of Applied Biology 106, 285 94.
67. Fargette D Thouvenel J-C Fauquet C, 1987. Virus content of leaves of cassava infected by African cassava mosaic virus. Annals of Applied Biology 110, 65 73.
68. Fargette D Fauquet C Thouvenel J-C, 1988. Yield losses induced by African cassava mosaic virus in relation to the mode and the date of infection. Tropical Pest Management 34, 89 91.
69. Fargette D Fauquet C Grenier E Thresh JM, 1990. The spread of African cassava mosaic virus into and within cassava fields. Journal of Phytopathology 130, 289 302.
70. Fargette D Muniyappa V Fauquet CM N'Guessan P Thouvenel J-C, 1993. Comparative epidemiology of three tropical whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses. Biochimie 75, 547 54.
71. Fargette D Jeger MJ Fauquet C Fishpool LDC, 1994a. Analysis of temporal disease progress of African cassava mosaic virus. Phytopathology 84, 91 8.
72. Fargette D Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW, 1994b. The epidemiology of African cassava mosaic geminivirus: reversion and the concept of equilibrium. Tropical Science 34, 123 33.
73. Fargette D Colon LT Bouveau D Fauquet C, 1996. Components of resistance of cassava to African cassava mosaic virus. European Journal of Plant Pathology 102, 645 54.
74. Fauquet C Beachy RN, undated. Cassava Viruses and Genetic Engineering. International Cassava-trans Project. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA.
75. Fauquet C Fargette D, 1990. African cassava mosaic virus. etiology, epidemiology and control. Plant Disease 74, 404 11.
76. Fauquet CM Stanley J, 2003. Geminivirus classification and nomenclature. progress and problems. Annals of Applied Biology 142, 165 89.
77. Fauquet C Fargette D Thouvenel J-C, 1988a. Some aspects of the epidemiology of African cassava mosaic virus in Ivory Coast. Tropical Pest Management 34, 92 6.
78. Fauquet C Fargette D Thouvenel J-C, 1988b. Epidemiology of African cassava mosaic on a regional scale in the Ivory Coast. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 131 5.
79. Fauquet C Fargette D Thouvenel J-C, 1988c. Selection of healthy cassava plants obtained by reversion in cassava fields. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 146 9.
80. Fauquet C Fargette D Thouvenel J-C, 1988d. The resistance of cassava to African cassava mosaic. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 183 8.
81. Fereol L, 1978. Multiplication végétative et elimination des phénomès dégénérescence chez les virus de manioc cultivés in vitro. PhD thesis. Paris Sud, France: Université Orsay.
82. Fishpool LDC Burban C, 1994. Bemisia tabaci: the whitefly vector of African cassava mosaic geminivirus. Tropical Science 34, 55 72.
83. Fishpool LDC Fauquet C Fargette D Thouvenel J-C Burban C Colvin J, 1995. The phenology of Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera. Aleyrodidae) populations on cassava in southern Côte d'Ivoire. Bulletin of Entomological Research 85, 197 207.
84. Fondong VN Adipala E Thresh JM, 1997. Spread of African cassava mosaic geminivirus at four agroecological locations of Cameroon. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings 3, 1035 49.
85. Fondong VN Pita JS Rey C Beachy RN Fauquet CM, 1998. First report of the presence of East African cassava mosaic virus in Cameroon. Plant Disease 82, 1172.
86. Fondong VN Pita JS Rey MEC de Kochko A Beachy RN Fauquet CM, 2000a. Evidence of synergism between African cassava mosaic virus and a new double-recombinant geminivirus infecting cassava in Cameroon. Journal of General Virology 81, 287 97.
87. Fondong VN Thresh JM Fauquet C, 2000b. Field experiments in Cameroon on cassava mosaic virus disease and the reversion phenomenon in susceptible and resistant cassava cultivars. International Journal of Pest Management 46, 211 7.
88. Fondong VN Thresh JM Zok S, 2002. Spatial and temporal spread of cassava mosaic virus disease in cassava grown alone and when intercropped with maize and/or cowpea. Journal of Phytopathology 150, 365 74.
89. Fregene M, 2000. Marking progress. Collaboration to improve Cassava. In : Kinley D, ed. Synergies in Science. Washington, DC, USA : CGIAR, 6 7.
90. Fregene M Angel F Gómez R Rodríguez F Chavarriaga P Roca W Tohme J Bonierbale M, 1997. A molecular genetic map of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 95, 431 41.
91. Fregene M Bernal A Duque M Dixon A Tohme J, 2001. AFLP analysis of African cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) germplasm resistant to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 100, 678 85.
92. Fregene M Puonti-Kaerlas J, 2002. Cassava biotechnology. In : Hillocks RJ Thresh JM Bellotti AC, eds. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization. Wallingford, UK : CAB International, 179 207.
93. Frison EA, 1994. Sanitation techniques for cassava. Tropical Science 34, 146 53.
94. Fulton RW, 1986. Practices and precautions in the use of cross protection for plant virus disease control. Annual Review of Phytopathology 24, 67 81.
95. Geddes AMW, 1990. The Relative Importance of Crop Pests in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bulletin no. 36. Chatham, UK : Natural. Resources Institute.
96. Ghesquière J, 1932. Sur la 'mycosphaerellose' des feuilles du manioc. Bulletin Institute Colonie Belge 3, 160.
97. Gibson RW, 1994. Long-term absence of symptoms in heat-treated African cassava mosaic geminivirus-infected resistant cassava plants. Tropical Science 34, 154 8.
98. Gold CS, 1994. The effects of cropping systems on cassava whiteflies in Colombia: implications for control of African cassava mosaic virus disease. African Crop Science Journal 2, 423 36.
99. Gold CS Altieri MA Bellotti C, 1989. Cassava intercropping and pest incidence: a review illustrated with a case study from Colombia. Tropical Pest Management 35, 339 44.
100. Golding FD, 1936. Bemisia nigeriensis Corb., a vector of cassava mosaic in southern Nigeria. Tropical Agriculture, (Trinidad) 13, 182 6.
101. Gregory PH, 1948. The multiple-infection transformation. Annals of Applied Biology 35, 412 7.
102. Guthrie J, 1990. Controlling African Cassava Mosaic Disease. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA.
103. Hahn SK Terry ER Leuschner K, 1980. Breeding cassava for resistance to cassava mosaic disease. Euphytica 29, 673 83.
104. Harrison BD Zhou X Otim-Nape GW Liu Y Robinson DJ, 1997. Role of a novel type of double infection in the geminivirus-induced epidemic of severe cassava mosaic in Uganda. Annals of Applied Biology 131, 437 48.
105. Hillocks RJ Thresh JM Tomas J Botao M Macia R Zavier R, 2002. Cassava brown streak disease in northern Mozambique. International Journal of Pest Management 48, 179 82.
106. Holt J Jeger MJ Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW, 1997. An epidemiological model incorporating vector population dynamics applied to African cassava mosaic virus disease. Journal of Applied Ecology 34, 793 806.
107. Hong YG Robinson DJ Harrison BD, 1993. Nucleotide sequence evidence for the occurrence of three distinct whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in cassava. Journal of General Virology 74, 2437 43.
108. IITA, 1986. Impact of IITA Cassava Varieties. Annual Report and Research Highlights: 1985. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 103 4.
109. Jameson JD, 1964. Cassava mosaic disease in Uganda. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 29, 208 13.
110. Jennings DL, 1957. Further studies in breeding cassava for virus resistance. East African Agricultural Journal 22, 213 9.
111. Jennings DL, 1960. Observations on virus diseases of cassava in resistant and susceptible varieties. I. Mosaic disease. Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture 28, 23 34.
112. Jennings DL, 1976. Breeding for resistance to African Cassava Mosaic Disease. In : Nestel BL, ed. Report of an Inter-disciplinary Workshop, Muguga, Kenya, 1976. Ottawa, Canada : IDRC, 39 44.
113. Jennings D, 1988. Host-virus relationships of resistant cassava and ACMV. Some implications for breeding and disease control. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 170 6.
114. Jennings DL, 1994. Breeding for resistance to African cassava mosaic geminivirus in East Africa. Tropical Science 34, 110 22.
115. Jericho C Thompson GJ Gerntholtz U Viljoen JC, 1999. Occurrence and distribution of cassava pests and diseases in South Africa. In : Akoroda MO Teri JM, eds. Food Security and Crop Diversification in SADC Countries: The Role of Cassava and Sweet Potato. Proceedings of the Scientific Workshop of the Southern African Root Crops Research Network, Lusaka, 1998. Ibadan, Nigeria : SADC/IITA/CIP, 252 62.
116. Johnson A, 1992. Report, Lake Chad Farmer Training and Agricultural Development Project: American Organizations for Rehabilitation Through Training. Unpublished report. US Agency for International Development, Chad.
117. Kaiser WJ Louie R, 1982. Heat therapy of cassava infected with African cassava mosaic disease. Plant Disease 66, 475 7.
118. Kaiser WJ Teemba LR, 1979. Use of tissue culture and thermotherapy to free East African cassava cultivars of African cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases. Plant Disease Reporter 63, 780 4.
119. Lefèvre P, 1935. Quelques considérations sur la mosaïque du manioc. Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge 26, 442 7.
120. Legg JP, 1994. Bemisia tabaci: the whitefly vector of cassava mosaic geminiviruses in Africa: an ecological perspective. African Crop Science Journal 2, 437 48.
121. Legg JP, 1999. Emergence, spread and strategies for controlling the pandemic of cassava mosaic virus disease in east and central Africa. Crop Protection 18, 627 37.
122. Legg JP Fauquet CM, 2004. Cassava mosaic geminiviruses in Africa. Plant Molecular Biology 56, 585 99.
123. Legg JP Ogwal S, 1998. Changes in the incidence of African cassava mosaic virus disease and the abundance of its whitefly vector along south-north transects in Uganda. Journal of Applied Entomology 122, 169 78.
124. Legg JP Raya MD, 1998. Survey of cassava virus diseases in Tanzania. International Journal of Pest Management 44, 17 23.
125. Legg JP Thresh JM, 2000. Cassava mosaic virus disease in East Africa: a dynamic disease in a changing environment. Virus Research 71, 135 49.
126. Legg JP Thresh JM, 2004. Cassava virus diseases in Africa. In : Hughes Jd'A Adu BO, eds. Plant Virology in Sub-Saharan Africa Conference Proceedings. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 517 52.
127. Legg JP James B Cudjoe A Saizonou S Gbaguidi B Ogbe F Ntonifor N Ogwal S Thresh JM Hughes Jd'A, 1997. A regional collaborative approach to the study of African cassava mosaic disease epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings 3, 1021 33.
128. Legg JP Sseruwagi P Kamau J Ajanga S Jeremiah SC Aritua V Otim-Nape GW Muimba-Kankolongo A Gibson RW Thresh JM, 1999. The pandemic of severe cassava mosaic disease in East Africa: current status and future threats. In : Akoroda MO Teri JM, eds. Food Security and Crop Diversification in SADC Countries: The Role of Cassava and Sweet Potato. Proceedings of the Scientific Workshop of Southern African Root Crops Research Network, Lusaka, 1998. Ibadan, Nigeria : SADC, IITA, CIP, 236 51.
129. Legg JP Okao-Okuja G Mayala R Muhinyuza J-B, 2001. Spread into Rwanda of the severe cassava mosaic virus disease pandemic and the associated Uganda variant of East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV-UG). Plant Pathology 50, 796.
130. Legg JP Ndjelassili F Okao-Okuja G, 2004. First report of cassava mosaic disease and cassava mosaic geminiviruses in Gabon. Plant Pathology 53, 232.
131. Leuschner K, 1977. Whiteflies: biology and transmission of African mosaic disease. In : Brekelbaum T Bellotti A Lozano JC, eds. Proceedings of the Cassava Protection Workshop. Cali, Colombia : CIAT, 51 8.
132. Lokko Y Dixon AGO Offei SK, 2001b. Combining ability analysis of field resistance in cassava to the African cassava mosaic disease. In : Akoroda MO Ngeve JM, eds. Root Crops in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops, Africa Branch. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 438 43.
133. Lokko Y Dixon A Offei S Danquah E, 2001a. Complementarity of genes for resistance to cassava mosaic virus disease. African Crop Science Journal 5, 29 33.
134. Lozano JC, 1986. Cassava bacterial blight: a manageable disease. Plant Disease 70, 1089 93.
135. Lutaladio NB, 1984. Evaluation of cassava clones for leaf production in Zaire. In : Terry ER Arene OB Mahungu NM, eds. Proceedings of the Second Symposium, International Society for Tropical Root Crops - Africa Branch. Ottowa, Canada : IDRC, 41 4.
136. Lutaladio NB Ezumah HC, 1981. Cassava leaf harvesting in Zaire. In : Terry ER Oduro KA Caveness F, eds. Tropical Root Crops: Research Strategies for the 1980s. Ibadan, Nigeria : ISTRC-AB/IDRC, 134 6.
137. Mahungu NM Dixon AGO Kumbira JM, 1994. Breeding cassava for multiple pest resistance in Africa. African Crop Science Journal 2, 539 52.
138. Mahungu NM Mkumbira J Salipira KL, 1996. Cassava leaves cyanogenic potential as affected by African cassava mosaic disease. Roots 3 ( 1 8 9.
139. Malathi VG Thankappan M Nair NG Nambisan B Ghosh SP, 1988. Cassava mosaic disease in India. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 189 98.
140. Manyong VM Dixon AGO Makinde KO Bokanga M Whyte J, 2000. Impact of IITA-Improved Germplasm on Cassava Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA.
141. Maruthi MN Colvin J Seal S Thresh JM, 2002a. First report of a new begomovirus species infecting cassava from Zanzibar. Plant Disease 86, 187.
142. Maruthi MN Colvin J Seal S Gibson G Cooper J, 2002b. Co-adaptation between cassava mosaic geminiviruses and their local vector populations. Virus Research 86, 71 85.
143. Mayné R Ghesquière J, 1934. Hémiptères nuisibles aux végétaux du Congo Belge. Annales Gembloux, 1-41.
144. Mignouna HD Dixon AGO, 1997. Genetic relationships among cassava clones with varying levels of resistance to African mosaic disease using RAPD markers. African Journal of Root and Tuber Crops 2, 28 32.
145. Muimba-Kankolongo A Phuti K, 1987. Relationship of cassava severity in planting material to mosaic development, growth and yield of cassava in Zaire. Experimental Agriculture 23, 221 5.
146. Muimba-Kankolongo A Chalwe AA Sisupo P Kanga NC, 1997. Distribution, prevalence and outlook for control of cassava mosaic disease in Zambia. Roots 4 ( 1 2 7.
147. Muimba-Kankolongo A Mahungu NM Legg JP Theu MP Raya MD Chalwe A Muondo PA Abu AA Kaitisha G, 1999. Importance of cassava mosaic disease and intervention strategies for its control in southern Africa. In : Akoroda MO Teri JM, eds. Food Security and Crop Diversification in SADC Countries: The Role of Cassava and Sweet Potato. Proceedings of the Scientific Workshop of the Southern African Root Crops Research Network, Lusaka 1998. Ibadan. Nigeria : SADC, IITA, CIP, 212 35.
148. Munga T Thresh JM, 2002. Incidence of cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak virus diseases in coastal Kenya. Roots 8 ( 1 12 4.
149. Mutsaers HJW Ezumah HC Osiru DSO, 1993. Cassava-based intercropping: a review. Field Crops Research 34, 431 57.
150. Neuenschwander P Hughes Jd'A Ogbe F Ngatse JM Legg JP, 2002. Occurrence of the Uganda variant of East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV-Ug) in western Democratic Republic of Congo and the Congo Republic defines the westernmost extent of the CMD pandemic in East/Central Africa. Plant Pathology 51, 385.
151. Nichols RFW, 1947. Breeding cassava for virus resistance. East African Agricultural Journal 12, 184 94.
152. Njock TE Atiri GI Thottappilly G Hahn SK, 1994. Distribution and disease recovery of African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) in stems of resistant and susceptible cassava. In : Akoroda MO, ed. Root Crops for Food Security in Africa. Proceedings of the Fifth Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops - Africa Branch. Ibadan. Nigeria : IITA, 149 52.
153. Nweke FI, 1994. Farm level practices relevant to cassava plant protection. African Crop Science Journal 2, 563 82.
154. Nweke FI Dixon AGO Asiedu R Folayan SA, 1994. Cassava Varietal Needs of Farmers and the Potential for Production Growth in Africa. Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa, Working Paper no. 10. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA.
155. Nweke FI Ugwu BO Dixon AGO, 1996. Spread and Performance of Improved Cassava Varieties in Nigeria. Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa, Working Paper no. 15. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA.
156. Nweke FI Spencer DSC Lynam JK, 2002. The Cassava Transformation. East Lansing, MI, USA : Michigan State University Press.
157. Nyirenda GKC Munthali DC Phiri GSN Sauti RFN Gerling D, 1993. Integrated pest management of Bemisia spp. whiteflies in Malawi. Unpublished report. Thondwe, Malawi : Makoka Research Station.
158. Offei SK Owuna-Kwakye M Thottappilly G, 1999. First report of East African cassava mosaic begomovirus in Ghana. Plant Disease 83, 877.
159. Ogbe FO Songa W Kamau JW, 1996. Survey of the incidence of African cassava mosaic and East African cassava mosaic viruses in Kenya and Uganda using a monoclonal antibody-based diagnostic test. Roots 3 ( 1 10 4.
160. Ogbe FO Legg JP Raya MD Muimba-Kankolongo A Theu MP Kaitisha G Phiri NA Chalwe A, 1997. Diagnostic survey of cassava mosaic viruses in Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. Roots 4 ( 2 12 5.
161. Ogbe FO Atiri GI Robinson D Winter S Dixon AGO Quinn FM Thottappilly G, 1999. First report of East African cassava mosaic begomovirus in Nigeria. Plant Disease 83, 398.
162. Ogbe FO Dixon AGO Atiri GI Thottappilly G, 2002. Restriction of virus movement into axillary buds is an important aspect of resistance in cassava to African Cassava Mosaic Virus. Journal of Phytopathology 150, 546 52.
163. Okogbenin E Porto MCM Dixon AFO, 1998. Influence of planting season on incidence and severity of African cassava mosaic disease in the sub-humid zone of Nigeria. In : Akoroda MO Ekanayake IJ, eds. Root Crops and Poverty Alleviation. International Society for Tropical Root Crops: Africa Branch. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 388 93.
164. Oliveira MRV Henneberry TJ Anderson P, 2001. History, current status and collaborative projects for Bemisia tabaci. Crop Protection 20, 709 23.
165. Opsomer JC, 1938a. Observation sue la mosaïque du manioc. Journées d'Agronomie Coloniale, 1937. Leuven, Belgium : F. Centerick.
166. Opsomer JC, 1938b. De invloed van mozaikziekte op de opbrengst van de cassava. Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge 29, 317 23.
167. Osagie PI, 1998. Transfer of root crop technology for alleviation of poverty: the contribution of Shell, Nigeria. In : Akoroda MO Ekanayake IJ, eds. Root Crops and Poverty Alleviation. Proceedings of the 6th Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops: Africa Branch. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 38 42.
168. Otim-Nape GW, 1993. Epidemiology of the African Cassava Mosaic Geminivirus Disease (ACMD) in Uganda. PhD thesis. Reading, UK: University of Reading.
169. Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM, 1998. The current pandemic of cassava mosaic virus disease in Uganda. In : Gareth Jones D, ed. The Epidemiology of Plant Diseases. London, UK : Kluwer Academic, 423 43.
170. Otim-Nape GW Bua A Baguma Y, 1994. Accelerating the transfer of improved production technologies: controlling African cassava mosaic virus disease epidemics in Uganda. African Crop Science Journal 2, 479 95.
171. Otim-Nape GW Bua A Thresh JM, eds 1997a. Progress in Cassava Technology Transfer in Uganda. Proceedings of the National Workshop on Cassava
172. Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM Shaw MW, 1997b. The effects of cassava mosaic virus disease on yield and compensation in mixed stands of healthy and infected plants. Annals of Applied Biology 130, 503 21.
173. Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM Bua A Baguma Y Shaw MW, 1998a. Temporal spread of cassava mosaic virus disease in a range of cassava cultivars in different agro-ecological regions of Uganda. Annals of Applied Biology 133, 415 30.
174. Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM Shaw MW, 1998b. The incidence and severity of cassava mosaic virus disease in Uganda: 1990-92. Tropical Science 38, 25 37.
175. Otim-Nape GW Bua A Thresh JM Baguma Y Ogwal S Ssemakula GN Acola G Byabakama BA Colvin J Cooter RJ Martin A, 2000. The Current Pandemic of Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease in East Africa and its Control. Chatham, UK : NARO/NRI/DFID.
176. Otim-Nape GW Alicai T Thresh JM, 2001. Changes in the incidence and severity of cassava mosaic virus disease, varietal diversity and cassava production in Uganda. Annals of Applied Biology 138, 313 27.
177. Owor B, 2003. Effect of cassava mosaic geminiviruses (CMGs) on growth and yield of a cassava mosaic disease (CMD) susceptible cultivar in Uganda and cross protection studies. MSc thesis. Kampala, Uganda: Makerere University.
178. Owor B Legg JP Okao-Okuja G Obonyo R Ogenga-Latigo MW, 2002. Interactions between cassava mosaic geminiviruses and the African pandemic of cassava mosaic disease. Integrated Pest Management Conference Proceedings. Kampala, Uganda : Makerere University, 355 61.
179. Owor B Legg JP Okao-Okuja G Obonyo R Kyamanywa S Ogenga-Latigo MW, 2004. Field studies of cross protection with cassava mosaic geminiviruses in Uganda. Journal of Phytopathology 152, 243 9.
180. Pacumbaba PR, 1985. Virus-free shoots from cassava stem cuttings infected with cassava latent virus. Plant Disease 69, 231 2.
181. Pita JS Fondong VN Sangaré A Otim-Nape GW Ogwal S Fauquet CM, 2001. Recombination, pseudorecombination and synergism of geminiviruses are determinant keys to the epidemic of severe cassava mosaic disease in Uganda. Journal of General Virology 82, 655 65.
182. Porto MCM Asiedu R, 1993. Production hints: selection and preparation of cassava planting material. Tropical Root and Tuber Crops Bulletin, IITA 7, 3 4.
183. Posnette AF Todd JMcA, 1955. Virus diseases of cacao in West Africa. IX. Strain variation and interference in virus IA. Annals of Applied Biology 43, 433 53.
184. Raji AA, 1995. Evaluation of pest and disease and trait association in some landraces of cassava. MSc thesis. Ibadan, Nigeria: University of Ibadan.
185. Raji AA Dixon AGO Ladeinde TAO, 2001. Genetic diversity among Nigerian cassava landraces resistant to cassava mosaic disease and cassava green mite. In : Akoroda MO Ngeve JM, eds. Root Crops in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops, Africa Branch. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 443 454.
186. Robertson IAD, 1987. The whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) as a vector of African cassava mosaic virus at the Kenya coast and ways in which the yield losses in cassava Manihot esculenta Crantz caused by the virus can be reduced. Insect Science and its Application 8, 797 801.
187. Rossel HW Thottappilly G Van Lent JMW Huttinga H, 1988. The etiology of cassava mosaic in Nigeria. In : Fauquet C Fargette D, eds. Proceedings of an International Seminar on African Cassava Mosaic Disease and its Control, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire, 1987. Wageningen, the Netherlands : CTA/FAO/ORSTOM/IITA/IAPC, 43 56.
188. Russell GE, 1978. Plant Breeding for Pest and Disease Resistance. London, UK : Butterworth.
189. Sanford JC Johnston SA, 1985. The concept of parasite-derived resistance - deriving resistance genes from the parasite's own genome. Journal of Theoretical Biology 113, 395 405.
190. Satapathy MK, 1998. Chemical control of insect and nematode vectors of plant viruses. In : Hadidi A Khetarpal RK Koganezawa H, eds. Plant Virus Disease Control. St Paul, MN, USA : APS Press, 188 95.
191. Saunders K Salim N Mali VR Malathi VG Briddon R Markham PG Stanley J, 2002. Characterisation of Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus and Indian cassava mosaic virus: evidence for acquisition of a DNA B component by a monopartite begomovirus. Virology 293, 63 74.
192. Seif AA, 1981. Transmission of cassava mosaic virus by Bemisia tabaci. Plant Disease 65, 606 7.
193. Spittel MC van Huis A, 2000. Effect of cassava mosaic disease, soil fertility, plant spacing and their interactions on cassava yields in Zanzibar. International Journal of Pest Management 46, 187 93.
194. Sserubombwe WS Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Osiru DOS, 2001. Progress of cassava mosaic virus disease and whitefly vector populations in single and mixed stands of four cassava varieties grown under epidemic conditions in Uganda. Annals of Applied Biology 138, 161 70.
195. Sseruwagi P Otim-Nape GW Thresh JM Orisu DSO, 2003. Influence of NPK fertiliser on populations of the whitefly vector and incidence of cassava mosaic virus disease. African Crop Science Journal 11, 171 9.
196. Sseruwagi P Sserubombwe WS Legg JP Ndunguru J Thresh JM, 2004. Methods of surveying the incidence and severity of cassava mosaic disease and whitefly vector populations on cassava in Africa: a review. Virus Research 100, 129 42.
197. Sseruwagi P Okao-Okuja G Kalyebi A Muyango S Aggarwal S Legg JP, 2005. Cassava mosaic geminiviruses associated with cassava mosaic disease in Rwanda. International Journal of Pest Management 51, 17 23.
198. Storey HH, 1936. Virus diseases of East African plants: VI. A progress report on studies of the disease of cassava. East African Agricultural Journal 2, 34 9.
199. Storey HH Nichols RFW, 1938a. Studies of the mosaic diseases of cassava. Annals of Applied Biology 25, 790 806.
200. Storey HH Nichols RFW, 1938b. Virus diseases of East African plants VII. A field experiment in the transmission of cassava mosaic. East African Agricultural Journal 3, 446 9.
201. Swanson MM Harrison BD, 1994. Properties, relationships and distribution of cassava mosaic geminiviruses. Tropical Science 34, 15 25.
202. Sweetmore A, 1994. 'Adaptation and development of diagnostic reagents for cassava brown streak virus for use in less-developed countries.' Unpublished technical report. Chatham, UK : Natural Resources Institute.
203. Terry ER, 1982. Resistance to African cassava mosaic and productivity of improved cassava cultivars. In : Belen EH Villanueva M, eds. Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium of the International Society Tropical Root and Tuber Crops. Los Baños, Philippines : PCARRD, 415 29.
204. Terry ER Hahn SK, 1980. The effect of cassava mosaic disease on growth and yield of a local and an improved variety of cassava. Tropical Pest Management 26, 34 7.
205. Thottappilly G Thresh JM Calvert LA Winter S, 2004. Cassava. In. Loebenstein G Thottappilly G, eds. Virus and Virus-Like Diseases of Major Crops in Developing Countries. Dordrecht, the Netherlands : Kluwer, 107 65.
206. Thresh JM, 1982. Cropping practices and virus spread. Annual Review of Phytopathology 20, 193 218.
207. Thresh JM, 1988. Eradication as a virus disease control measure. In : Clifford BC Lester E, eds. Control of Plant Diseases: Costs and Benefits. Oxford, UK : Blackwell Scientific Publications, 155 94.
208. Thresh JM, 1989. The battle of the genes. In : Fraser RSS, ed. Recognition and Response in Plant-Virus Interactions. Cell Biology 41. NATO ASI Series, Series H, 93 121.
209. Thresh JM, 1991. The ecology of tropical plant viruses. Plant Pathology 40, 324 39.
210. Thresh JM, 2002. The recent pandemic of cassava mosaic disease in Uganda and the Gatsby contribution to its control. Tropical Agriculture Association Newsletter, 27 30.
211. Thresh JM, 2003. Control of plant virus diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: the possibility and feasibility of an integrated approach. African Crop Science Journal 11, 199 223.
212. Thresh JM Hillocks RJ, 2003. Cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases in Nampula and Zambézia provinces of Mozambique. Roots 8 ( 2 10 5.
213. Thresh JM Mbwana MW, 1998. Cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak virus diseases in Zanzibar. Roots 5 ( 1 6 9.
214. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW, 1994. Strategies for controlling African cassava mosaic geminivirus. Advances in Disease Vector Research 10, 215 36.
215. Thresh JM Fargette D Otim-Nape GW, 1994a. Effects of African cassava mosaic geminivirus on the yield of cassava. Tropical Science 34, 26 42.
216. Thresh JM Fishpool LDC Otim-Nape GW Fargette D, 1994b. African cassava mosaic virus: an underestimated and unsolved problem. Tropical Science 34, 3 14.
217. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Jennings DL, 1994c. Exploiting resistance to African cassava mosaic virus. Aspects of Applied Biology 39, 51 60.
218. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Fabres G Yaninek YS Adipala E, 1994d. Integrating the management of pests, weeds and diseases of cassava in Africa. African Crop Science Journal 2, 331 592.
219. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Legg JP Fargette D, 1997. African cassava mosaic virus disease: the magnitude of the problem. African Journal of Root and Tuber Crops 2, 13 9.
220. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Fargette D, 1998a. The components and deployment of resistance to cassava mosaic virus disease. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3, 209 24.
221. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Fargette D, 1998b. The control of African cassava mosaic virus disease: phytosanitation and/or resistance?. In : Hadidi A Khetarpal RK Koganezawa H, eds. Plant Virus Disease Control. St Paul, MN, USA : APS Press, 670 7.
222. Thresh JM Otim-Nape GW Thankappan M Muniyappa V, 1998c. The mosaic diseases of cassava in Africa and India caused by whitefly-borne geminiviruses. Review of Plant Pathology 77, 935 45.
223. Tidbury GE, 1937. A note on the yield of mosaic-diseased cassava. East African Agricultural Journal 3, 119.
224. Tothill JD, 1940. Agriculture in Uganda. London, UK : Oxford University Press.
225. Verhoyen M, 1979. Some observations on cassava mosaic in Zaire. In : Maraile H Meyer JA, eds. Diseases of Tropical Food Crops. Proceedings, International Symposium. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium : UCL, 77 81.
226. Warburg O, 1894. Die Kulturpflanzen Usambaras. Miteilung Deutsch Schutzgeb 7, 131.
227. Watts Padwick G, 1956. Losses Caused by Plant Diseases in the Colonies. Phytopathological Papers, No. 1. Kew, Surrey, UK : Commonwealth Myocological Institute.
228. Were HK Winter S Maiss E, 2004. Viruses infecting cassava in Kenya. Plant Disease 88, 17 22.
229. Wydra K Msikita W, 1998. An overview of the present situation of cassava diseases in West Africa. In : Akoroda MO Ekanayake IJ, eds. Roots Crops and Poverty Alleviation. Proceedings of the Sixth Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops - Africa Branch. Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 198 206.
230. Wydra K Agbicodo E Ahohuendo B Banito A Cooper RMC Dixon AGO Jorge V Kemp B Kpémoua K Rudolph K Verdier V Witt F Zandjanakou M Zinsou V, 2003. Integrated control of cassava bacterial blight by (1) combined cultural control measures (2) host plant resistance adapted to agro-ecological conditions, (3) improved pathogen detection. In : Akoroda MO, ed. Root Crops. 8th Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops - Africa Branch (ISTRC-AB). Ibadan, Nigeria : IITA, 506 15.
231. Yaninek JS James BD Bieler P, 1994. Ecologically sustainable cassava plant protection (ESCaPP): a model for environmentally sound pest management in Africa. African Crop Science Journal 2, 553 62.
232. Zhou X Liu Y Calvert L Munoz C Otim-Nape GW Robinson DJ Harrison BD, 1997. Evidence that DNA-A of a geminivirus associated with severe cassava mosaic disease in Uganda has arisen by interspecific recombination. Journal of General Virology 78, 2101 11.
233. Zinsou V Wydra K Ahohuendo B Hau B, 2005. Genotype-environment interactions in symptom development and yield of cassava genotypes with artificial and natural cassava bacterial blight infections. European Journal of Plant Pathology 111, 217 33.