"Women who have no men to work for them": Gender and homelessness in the great depression, 1930-1934

Feminist Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 105-127

  Abelson, Elaine S ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 30244505134     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Elaine S. Abelson, "Homeless in America: A Review Essay," Journal of Urban History 25 (January 1999): 258-69; Steven Marcus, "Homelessness and Dickens," Social Research 58 (spring 1991): 106.
2. Elaine S. Abelson, "Homeless in America: A Review Essay," Journal of Urban History 25 (January 1999): 258-69; Steven Marcus, "Homelessness and Dickens," Social Research 58 (spring 1991): 106.
3. Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Joan Grouse, The Homeless Transient in the Great Depression: New York State, 1929-1935 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 84.
4. Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Joan Grouse, The Homeless Transient in the Great Depression: New York State, 1929-1935 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), 84.
5. On poverty, gender, and the origins of the welfare state, see Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 75-80; Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Stephanie Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 280; and Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies 25 (fall 1999): 571-97.
6. On poverty, gender, and the origins of the welfare state, see Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 75-80; Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Stephanie Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 280; and Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies 25 (fall 1999): 571-97.
7. On poverty, gender, and the origins of the welfare state, see Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 75-80; Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Stephanie Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 280; and Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies 25 (fall 1999): 571-97.
8. On poverty, gender, and the origins of the welfare state, see Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 75-80; Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Stephanie Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 280; and Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies 25 (fall 1999): 571-97.
9. On poverty, gender, and the origins of the welfare state, see Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 75-80; Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); Stephanie Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 280; and Patrick Wilkinson, "The Selfless and the Helpless: Maternalist Origins of the U.S. Welfare State," Feminist Studies 25 (fall 1999): 571-97.
10. Crouse, 127, 171; Nels Anderson, Men on the Move (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940); and John N. Webb, The Transient Unemployed (Washington, D.C.: Works Progress Administration, 1938). See also Edward Newhouse, You Can't Sleep Here (New York: Macaulay, 1934); Edward Angly, comp., Oh Yeah? (New York: Viking Press, 1932).
11. Crouse, 127, 171; Nels Anderson, Men on the Move (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940); and John N. Webb, The Transient Unemployed (Washington, D.C.: Works Progress Administration, 1938). See also Edward Newhouse, You Can't Sleep Here (New York: Macaulay, 1934); Edward Angly, comp., Oh Yeah? (New York: Viking Press, 1932).
12. Crouse, 127, 171; Nels Anderson, Men on the Move (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940); and John N. Webb, The Transient Unemployed (Washington, D.C.: Works Progress Administration, 1938). See also Edward Newhouse, You Can't Sleep Here (New York: Macaulay, 1934); Edward Angly, comp., Oh Yeah? (New York: Viking Press, 1932).
13. Crouse, 127, 171; Nels Anderson, Men on the Move (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940); and John N. Webb, The Transient Unemployed (Washington, D.C.: Works Progress Administration, 1938). See also Edward Newhouse, You Can't Sleep Here (New York: Macaulay, 1934); Edward Angly, comp., Oh Yeah? (New York: Viking Press, 1932).
14. The focus of this essay is on cities and those who had legal residence in any given city. Staggering under the burden of restless, poverty-stricken local populations, most municipal authorities dealt with transients as a separate and decidedly unwelcome problem. Although my sources are national, I focus primarily on New York City because it both typified and magnified national urban problems and trends. A note about language: "homeless" was a recognized social category early in the twentieth century. In the 1910-1914 edition of the Readers Guide, "The Homeless" appears as a heading, and in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science for 1918, there is an article about the marginality of "The Homeless"; see Stuart A. Rice, "The Homeless," Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 77 (May 1918): 140-53.
15. Geraldine Sartain and Evelyn Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 18 Oct. 1933, 21: 3; "Study Mental Ills of Jobless Women," New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932,18: 8. See also memorandum from Emergency Work Bureau to Cooperating Agencies, 9 Mar. 1933, Lillian Wald Papers, reel 94, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as Wald Papers), about dropping people from its payroll.
16. Geraldine Sartain and Evelyn Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 18 Oct. 1933, 21: 3; "Study Mental Ills of Jobless Women," New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932,18: 8. See also memorandum from Emergency Work Bureau to Cooperating Agencies, 9 Mar. 1933, Lillian Wald Papers, reel 94, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as Wald Papers), about dropping people from its payroll.
17. Geraldine Sartain and Evelyn Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 18 Oct. 1933, 21: 3; "Study Mental Ills of Jobless Women," New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932,18: 8. See also memorandum from Emergency Work Bureau to Cooperating Agencies, 9 Mar. 1933, Lillian Wald Papers, reel 94, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as Wald Papers), about dropping people from its payroll.
18. "30,000 Women Seen in Need of Winter Shelter," New York Herald Tribune, 23 Oct. 1932, 2: 1; New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932, 23: 6; "Report of the Work of the CRB for Women from Mar. 1 to Sept. 30, 1932," Welfare Council of New York City, 3. Writing in The Transient, the publication of the National Traveler's Aid Society, Agnes O'Shea, former assistant director of CRB for women in New York City, commented on "the rise of mental cases, chronic and acute which emerged for the first time." See The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Shoshana Felman and Dorf Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing (New York: Routledge, 1992), 103.
19. "30,000 Women Seen in Need of Winter Shelter," New York Herald Tribune, 23 Oct. 1932, 2: 1; New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932, 23: 6; "Report of the Work of the CRB for Women from Mar. 1 to Sept. 30, 1932," Welfare Council of New York City, 3. Writing in The Transient, the publication of the National Traveler's Aid Society, Agnes O'Shea, former assistant director of CRB for women in New York City, commented on "the rise of mental cases, chronic and acute which emerged for the first time." See The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Shoshana Felman and Dorf Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing (New York: Routledge, 1992), 103.
20. "30,000 Women Seen in Need of Winter Shelter," New York Herald Tribune, 23 Oct. 1932, 2: 1; New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932, 23: 6; "Report of the Work of the CRB for Women from Mar. 1 to Sept. 30, 1932," Welfare Council of New York City, 3. Writing in The Transient, the publication of the National Traveler's Aid Society, Agnes O'Shea, former assistant director of CRB for women in New York City, commented on "the rise of mental cases, chronic and acute which emerged for the first time." See The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Shoshana Felman and Dorf Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing (New York: Routledge, 1992), 103.
21. "30,000 Women Seen in Need of Winter Shelter," New York Herald Tribune, 23 Oct. 1932, 2: 1; New York Times, 3 Nov. 1932, 23: 6; "Report of the Work of the CRB for Women from Mar. 1 to Sept. 30, 1932," Welfare Council of New York City, 3. Writing in The Transient, the publication of the National Traveler's Aid Society, Agnes O'Shea, former assistant director of CRB for women in New York City, commented on "the rise of mental cases, chronic and acute which emerged for the first time." See The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Shoshana Felman and Dorf Laub, Testimony: Crises of Witnessing (New York: Routledge, 1992), 103.
22. "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, Community Service Society Papers, box 123, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as CSS Papers); "Destitute Women on Increase Here: Salvation Army Reports 50 Percent Rise in Applicants," New York Times, 15 June 1932, 21: 4; "Where Pride Conquers Hunger," Philadelphia Inquirer, 15 Dec. 1930.
23. "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, Community Service Society Papers, box 123, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as CSS Papers); "Destitute Women on Increase Here: Salvation Army Reports 50 Percent Rise in Applicants," New York Times, 15 June 1932, 21: 4; "Where Pride Conquers Hunger," Philadelphia Inquirer, 15 Dec. 1930.
24. "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, Community Service Society Papers, box 123, Columbia University Library (hereafter cited as CSS Papers); "Destitute Women on Increase Here: Salvation Army Reports 50 Percent Rise in Applicants," New York Times, 15 June 1932, 21: 4; "Where Pride Conquers Hunger," Philadelphia Inquirer, 15 Dec. 1930.
25. W.H. Matthews, "The Story of the Emergency Work Bureau," 1 Oct. 1930-31 Aug. 1933, CSS Papers, box 67, 45-46; a New York Times (23 Oct. 1932, 20:3) article describes the Muni as "designed chiefly to care for the habitually destitute and uneducated woman."
26. W.H. Matthews, "The Story of the Emergency Work Bureau," 1 Oct. 1930-31 Aug. 1933, CSS Papers, box 67, 45-46; a New York Times (23 Oct. 1932, 20:3) article describes the Muni as "designed chiefly to care for the habitually destitute and uneducated woman."
27. Nels Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," Welfare Council of New York City, Research Bureau, 1934, CSS Papers, box 132; Olive Walker Swinney, "Provisions for the Care of Destitute Non-Family Women in Chicago" (master's thesis, University of Chicago, 1937), 148-49, 178; and New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1.
28. Nels Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," Welfare Council of New York City, Research Bureau, 1934, CSS Papers, box 132; Olive Walker Swinney, "Provisions for the Care of Destitute Non-Family Women in Chicago" (master's thesis, University of Chicago, 1937), 148-49, 178; and New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1.
29. Nels Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," Welfare Council of New York City, Research Bureau, 1934, CSS Papers, box 132; Olive Walker Swinney, "Provisions for the Care of Destitute Non-Family Women in Chicago" (master's thesis, University of Chicago, 1937), 148-49, 178; and New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1.
30. Minutes of Emergency Work and Relief Bureau Committee Meetings for October 1931-October 1932, 6 Nov. 1932, CSS Papers, box 75; Gladys Palmer, "Depression Jobs: A Study of Job Openings in the Philadelphia Employment Office, 1932-1933," Wald Papers, reel 43, box 43, p. 6. Henry Street Settlement held an "Adult Colored Holiday Party" on 26 Dec. 1931, Wald Papers, reel 94.
31. Minutes of Emergency Work and Relief Bureau Committee Meetings for October 1931-October 1932, 6 Nov. 1932, CSS Papers, box 75; Gladys Palmer, "Depression Jobs: A Study of Job Openings in the Philadelphia Employment Office, 1932-1933," Wald Papers, reel 43, box 43, p. 6. Henry Street Settlement held an "Adult Colored Holiday Party" on 26 Dec. 1931, Wald Papers, reel 94.
32. "Relief Situation in New York City," 1-2 Apr. 1932, CSS Papers, box 115; "Welfare Council Summary of Minutes," 10 Mar. and 23 June 1931, Wald Papers, reel 35, box 34; Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 143-44; Faye Dudden, "Experts and Servants: The National Council on Household Employment and the Decline of Domestic Service in the Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 20 (winter 1986): 273.
33. "Relief Situation in New York City," 1-2 Apr. 1932, CSS Papers, box 115; "Welfare Council Summary of Minutes," 10 Mar. and 23 June 1931, Wald Papers, reel 35, box 34; Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 143-44; Faye Dudden, "Experts and Servants: The National Council on Household Employment and the Decline of Domestic Service in the Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 20 (winter 1986): 273.
34. "Relief Situation in New York City," 1-2 Apr. 1932, CSS Papers, box 115; "Welfare Council Summary of Minutes," 10 Mar. and 23 June 1931, Wald Papers, reel 35, box 34; Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 143-44; Faye Dudden, "Experts and Servants: The National Council on Household Employment and the Decline of Domestic Service in the Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 20 (winter 1986): 273.
35. "Relief Situation in New York City," 1-2 Apr. 1932, CSS Papers, box 115; "Welfare Council Summary of Minutes," 10 Mar. and 23 June 1931, Wald Papers, reel 35, box 34; Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 143-44; Faye Dudden, "Experts and Servants: The National Council on Household Employment and the Decline of Domestic Service in the Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 20 (winter 1986): 273.
36. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
37. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
38. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
39. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
40. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
41. Welfare Council of New York City, Central Registration Bureau for Women, "Outstanding Facts Brought out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Woman's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 3. For conditions in Harlem, see "Finds Negroes Here Hard Hit by Slump," New York Times, 3 July 1932, 4, 13, and 4 Dec. 1932, 8: 4. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House"; Welfare Council of New York City, "Central Registration Bureau for Women," Women's Bureau Bulletin 158 (October-December 1932): 2. On patterns of informal aid within the Black community, see Roi Otley and William J. Weatherby, "The Depression," in their The Negro in New York: An Informal Social History (New York: New York Public Library, 1967); Committee on Negro Welfare, The Negro Worker in New York City (New York: Welfare Council of New York City, 1941), 7.
42. Harriet A. Byrne, "Women Unemployed Seeking Relief in 1933," Women's Bureau Bulletin 139 (ca. 1934); Welfare Council of New York City, "Emergency Care of Unattached Men and Women in New York City," Report, 19 Oct. 1932.
43. Harriet A. Byrne, "Women Unemployed Seeking Relief in 1933," Women's Bureau Bulletin 139 (ca. 1934); Welfare Council of New York City, "Emergency Care of Unattached Men and Women in New York City," Report, 19 Oct. 1932.
44. Susan Ware, Holding Their Own: American Women in the 1930s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 32, 71; Swinney cites a sample of 956 cases of homeless women estranged from their families (158). Contrary to Swinney's findings, Edward Foran found over 49 percent of his sample of 6,232 women "in selected cities" to be unmarried. See "Resident Homeless in the U.S." (master's thesis, Fordham University, 1938), 62; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief," statement of Dorothy Kahn in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 74. For a composite picture of 14,550 women, see "M'Kee Sees Funds for Relief Assured," New York Times, 27 Oct. 1932, 3:1; Channels: News Bulletin of the Social Work Publicity Council 68 (January 1933): 9.
45. Susan Ware, Holding Their Own: American Women in the 1930s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 32, 71; Swinney cites a sample of 956 cases of homeless women estranged from their families (158). Contrary to Swinney's findings, Edward Foran found over 49 percent of his sample of 6,232 women "in selected cities" to be unmarried. See "Resident Homeless in the U.S." (master's thesis, Fordham University, 1938), 62; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief," statement of Dorothy Kahn in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 74. For a composite picture of 14,550 women, see "M'Kee Sees Funds for Relief Assured," New York Times, 27 Oct. 1932, 3:1; Channels: News Bulletin of the Social Work Publicity Council 68 (January 1933): 9.
46. Susan Ware, Holding Their Own: American Women in the 1930s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 32, 71; Swinney cites a sample of 956 cases of homeless women estranged from their families (158). Contrary to Swinney's findings, Edward Foran found over 49 percent of his sample of 6,232 women "in selected cities" to be unmarried. See "Resident Homeless in the U.S." (master's thesis, Fordham University, 1938), 62; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief," statement of Dorothy Kahn in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 74. For a composite picture of 14,550 women, see "M'Kee Sees Funds for Relief Assured," New York Times, 27 Oct. 1932, 3:1; Channels: News Bulletin of the Social Work Publicity Council 68 (January 1933): 9.
47. Susan Ware, Holding Their Own: American Women in the 1930s (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 32, 71; Swinney cites a sample of 956 cases of homeless women estranged from their families (158). Contrary to Swinney's findings, Edward Foran found over 49 percent of his sample of 6,232 women "in selected cities" to be unmarried. See "Resident Homeless in the U.S." (master's thesis, Fordham University, 1938), 62; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief," statement of Dorothy Kahn in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 74. For a composite picture of 14,550 women, see "M'Kee Sees Funds for Relief Assured," New York Times, 27 Oct. 1932, 3:1; Channels: News Bulletin of the Social Work Publicity Council 68 (January 1933): 9.
48. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); "Jobless Unattached Women Are Studied by Labor Board," Milwaukee Journal, 26 July 1938; "independent" did not mean these women had no families, See Lois Rita Helmbold, "Beyond the Family Economy: Black and White Working-Class Women during the Great Depression," Feminist Studies 13 (fall 1987): 629-55; and Ewan Clague, Women without Work: A Study of 1,654 Unemployed Destitute Women Living Alone in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Joint Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, 1934), 18.
49. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); "Jobless Unattached Women Are Studied by Labor Board," Milwaukee Journal, 26 July 1938; "independent" did not mean these women had no families, See Lois Rita Helmbold, "Beyond the Family Economy: Black and White Working-Class Women during the Great Depression," Feminist Studies 13 (fall 1987): 629-55; and Ewan Clague, Women without Work: A Study of 1,654 Unemployed Destitute Women Living Alone in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Joint Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, 1934), 18.
50. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); "Jobless Unattached Women Are Studied by Labor Board," Milwaukee Journal, 26 July 1938; "independent" did not mean these women had no families, See Lois Rita Helmbold, "Beyond the Family Economy: Black and White Working-Class Women during the Great Depression," Feminist Studies 13 (fall 1987): 629-55; and Ewan Clague, Women without Work: A Study of 1,654 Unemployed Destitute Women Living Alone in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Joint Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, 1934), 18.
51. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); "Jobless Unattached Women Are Studied by Labor Board," Milwaukee Journal, 26 July 1938; "independent" did not mean these women had no families, See Lois Rita Helmbold, "Beyond the Family Economy: Black and White Working-Class Women during the Great Depression," Feminist Studies 13 (fall 1987): 629-55; and Ewan Clague, Women without Work: A Study of 1,654 Unemployed Destitute Women Living Alone in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Joint Committee on Research of the Community Council of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, 1934), 18.
52. William Hodson, "Committee on Emergency Financing of Social Work," 8 July 1932, CSS Papers, box 123.
53. Linda Gordon, "Response to Theda Skocpol," Contention 2 (spring 1993): 187.
54. Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," 124-25; these numbers do not mean that this many women passed through the Municipal Lodging House. Legal residents of the city could and often did remain more than the allotted five nights. The number does indicate, however, how many more women were in need of shelter compared to the years prior to the Great Depression. "What about This Man?" Report of the Emergency Employment Committee (n.p.) November 1930, Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; Sartain and Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 16 Oct. 1933, 3; "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, CSS Papers, box 123.
55. Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," 124-25; these numbers do not mean that this many women passed through the Municipal Lodging House. Legal residents of the city could and often did remain more than the allotted five nights. The number does indicate, however, how many more women were in need of shelter compared to the years prior to the Great Depression. "What about This Man?" Report of the Emergency Employment Committee (n.p.) November 1930, Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; Sartain and Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 16 Oct. 1933, 3; "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, CSS Papers, box 123.
56. Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," 124-25; these numbers do not mean that this many women passed through the Municipal Lodging House. Legal residents of the city could and often did remain more than the allotted five nights. The number does indicate, however, how many more women were in need of shelter compared to the years prior to the Great Depression. "What about This Man?" Report of the Emergency Employment Committee (n.p.) November 1930, Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; Sartain and Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 16 Oct. 1933, 3; "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, CSS Papers, box 123.
57. Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," 124-25; these numbers do not mean that this many women passed through the Municipal Lodging House. Legal residents of the city could and often did remain more than the allotted five nights. The number does indicate, however, how many more women were in need of shelter compared to the years prior to the Great Depression. "What about This Man?" Report of the Emergency Employment Committee (n.p.) November 1930, Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; Sartain and Seeley, "The Forgotten Woman," New York World-Telegram, 16 Oct. 1933, 3; "The Salvation Army and the Present Crisis," October 1930-September 1931, CSS Papers, box 123.
58. "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem Which Many Cities Are Having Difficulty Solving," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1; "Women and Children First," War Cry, 24 Oct. 1931, 6; Meridel Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," in her Ripening: Selected Works (reprint; New York: Feminist Press, 1986), 144-57, originally published in American Mercury 1934, and Women on the Breadlines (n.p.). These first-hand accounts go against the commonly accepted idea that women were quicker than men to seek assistance and appeal to social agencies. Constance Coiner, "Literature of Resistance: The Intersection of Feminism and the Communist Left in Meridel Le Sueur and Tillie Olsen," in Radical Revisions: Reading 1930s Culture, ed. Bill Mullen and Sherry Linkon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 147-54.
59. "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem Which Many Cities Are Having Difficulty Solving," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1; "Women and Children First," War Cry, 24 Oct. 1931, 6; Meridel Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," in her Ripening: Selected Works (reprint; New York: Feminist Press, 1986), 144-57, originally published in American Mercury 1934, and Women on the Breadlines (n.p.). These first-hand accounts go against the commonly accepted idea that women were quicker than men to seek assistance and appeal to social agencies. Constance Coiner, "Literature of Resistance: The Intersection of Feminism and the Communist Left in Meridel Le Sueur and Tillie Olsen," in Radical Revisions: Reading 1930s Culture, ed. Bill Mullen and Sherry Linkon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 147-54.
60. "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem Which Many Cities Are Having Difficulty Solving," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1; "Women and Children First," War Cry, 24 Oct. 1931, 6; Meridel Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," in her Ripening: Selected Works (reprint; New York: Feminist Press, 1986), 144-57, originally published in American Mercury 1934, and Women on the Breadlines (n.p.). These first-hand accounts go against the commonly accepted idea that women were quicker than men to seek assistance and appeal to social agencies. Constance Coiner, "Literature of Resistance: The Intersection of Feminism and the Communist Left in Meridel Le Sueur and Tillie Olsen," in Radical Revisions: Reading 1930s Culture, ed. Bill Mullen and Sherry Linkon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 147-54.
61. "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem Which Many Cities Are Having Difficulty Solving," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6: 1; "Women and Children First," War Cry, 24 Oct. 1931, 6; Meridel Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," in her Ripening: Selected Works (reprint; New York: Feminist Press, 1986), 144-57, originally published in American Mercury 1934, and Women on the Breadlines (n.p.). These first-hand accounts go against the commonly accepted idea that women were quicker than men to seek assistance and appeal to social agencies. Constance Coiner, "Literature of Resistance: The Intersection of Feminism and the Communist Left in Meridel Le Sueur and Tillie Olsen," in Radical Revisions: Reading 1930s Culture, ed. Bill Mullen and Sherry Linkon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 147-54.
62. Emily Hahn, "Women without Work," New Republic 75 (May 1933): 64; Mary Sims, "The YWCA and Social Responsibility," Woman's Press (April 1933): 170; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 151; Eleanor Roosevelt responds with an almost identical sentiment in her It's Up to the Women (New York: Frederick A Stokes Co., 1933), 142-43.
63. Emily Hahn, "Women without Work," New Republic 75 (May 1933): 64; Mary Sims, "The YWCA and Social Responsibility," Woman's Press (April 1933): 170; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 151; Eleanor Roosevelt responds with an almost identical sentiment in her It's Up to the Women (New York: Frederick A Stokes Co., 1933), 142-43.
64. Emily Hahn, "Women without Work," New Republic 75 (May 1933): 64; Mary Sims, "The YWCA and Social Responsibility," Woman's Press (April 1933): 170; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 151; Eleanor Roosevelt responds with an almost identical sentiment in her It's Up to the Women (New York: Frederick A Stokes Co., 1933), 142-43.
65. Emily Hahn, "Women without Work," New Republic 75 (May 1933): 64; Mary Sims, "The YWCA and Social Responsibility," Woman's Press (April 1933): 170; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 151; Eleanor Roosevelt responds with an almost identical sentiment in her It's Up to the Women (New York: Frederick A Stokes Co., 1933), 142-43.
66. Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 231-32; "Community Planning for Unemployed Women without Resources," YMCA Report, 7 Mar. 1932; "Report on the Work of the CRB for Women from Mar. 1 to Sept. 30, 1932," Welfare Council of New York City. Crouse writes that it was "standard policy to return all unattached women to their homes" (9); "Report on the City of Detroit," 9 Jan. 1931, Central Files PECE, file 106, National Archives.
67. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 124; and Helmbold, 629-31; "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6:1. Lorine Pruette, ed., Women Workers through the Depression (New York: Macmillan Co., 1934), chap. 10; Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 82.
68. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 124; and Helmbold, 629-31; "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6:1. Lorine Pruette, ed., Women Workers through the Depression (New York: Macmillan Co., 1934), chap. 10; Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 82.
69. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 124; and Helmbold, 629-31; "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6:1. Lorine Pruette, ed., Women Workers through the Depression (New York: Macmillan Co., 1934), chap. 10; Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 82.
70. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 124; and Helmbold, 629-31; "Unemployed Women Becoming a Serious Problem," New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932, sec. 4, 6:1. Lorine Pruette, ed., Women Workers through the Depression (New York: Macmillan Co., 1934), chap. 10; Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 82.
71. William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 68-69; Joan W. Scott, "The Evidence of Experience," Critical Inquiry 17 (summer 1991): 777; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), xxix.
72. William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 68-69; Joan W. Scott, "The Evidence of Experience," Critical Inquiry 17 (summer 1991): 777; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), xxix.
73. William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 68-69; Joan W. Scott, "The Evidence of Experience," Critical Inquiry 17 (summer 1991): 777; and Martha Banta, Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), xxix.
74. Wendy Kozol, "Madonnas of the Fields: Photography, Gender, and the 1930s Farm Relief," Genders 2 (summer 1988): 1-21; Alon Confino, "Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method," American Historical Review 102 (December 1997): 1397. One series of photographs forms an exception: see Edward Steichen, "Homeless Women: The Depression," A Life in Photography (New York: Harmony Books in collaboration with the Museum of Modern Art, 1963), plate 162.
75. Wendy Kozol, "Madonnas of the Fields: Photography, Gender, and the 1930s Farm Relief," Genders 2 (summer 1988): 1-21; Alon Confino, "Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method," American Historical Review 102 (December 1997): 1397. One series of photographs forms an exception: see Edward Steichen, "Homeless Women: The Depression," A Life in Photography (New York: Harmony Books in collaboration with the Museum of Modern Art, 1963), plate 162.
76. Wendy Kozol, "Madonnas of the Fields: Photography, Gender, and the 1930s Farm Relief," Genders 2 (summer 1988): 1-21; Alon Confino, "Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method," American Historical Review 102 (December 1997): 1397. One series of photographs forms an exception: see Edward Steichen, "Homeless Women: The Depression," A Life in Photography (New York: Harmony Books in collaboration with the Museum of Modern Art, 1963), plate 162.
77. Anderson, "The Homeless in New York City," 1, 123-24.
78. "30,000 Women Seen in Need of Winter Shelter," New York Herald Tribune, 23 Oct. 1932, 2:1; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief statement of William Hodson in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 19.
79. Nels Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House of New York City," Confidential Report on the Municipal Lodging House of New York City, Part 1, Welfare Council of New York City, April 1932, i-vii, 5, 10.
80. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," xiii; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief statement of Herbert Benjamin in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 195-96; "Jobless Women in Parks," New York Times, 20 Sept. 1931, 2N; and "Solving the Women's Problem," War Cry, 3 Sept. 1932, 5. For a discussion of how bias creeps into census statistics, see Margo A. Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U.S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940," Historical Methods 14 (spring 1981): 65-72.
81. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," xiii; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief statement of Herbert Benjamin in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 195-96; "Jobless Women in Parks," New York Times, 20 Sept. 1931, 2N; and "Solving the Women's Problem," War Cry, 3 Sept. 1932, 5. For a discussion of how bias creeps into census statistics, see Margo A. Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U.S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940," Historical Methods 14 (spring 1981): 65-72.
82. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," xiii; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief statement of Herbert Benjamin in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 195-96; "Jobless Women in Parks," New York Times, 20 Sept. 1931, 2N; and "Solving the Women's Problem," War Cry, 3 Sept. 1932, 5. For a discussion of how bias creeps into census statistics, see Margo A. Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U.S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940," Historical Methods 14 (spring 1981): 65-72.
83. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," xiii; Subcommittee of the Committee on Manufacturers, "Unemployment Relief statement of Herbert Benjamin in Hearings on S. 174 and S. 262, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., December 1931-January 1932, 195-96; "Jobless Women in Parks," New York Times, 20 Sept. 1931, 2N; and "Solving the Women's Problem," War Cry, 3 Sept. 1932, 5. For a discussion of how bias creeps into census statistics, see Margo A. Conk, "Accuracy, Efficiency, and Bias: The Interpretation of Women's Work in the U.S. Census of Occupations, 1890-1940," Historical Methods 14 (spring 1981): 65-72.
84. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," 29; "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 22: 1, and 23 Oct. 1932, 20: 3; Salvation Army, "Report of Unemployment Emergency Relief Work in Greater New York," 1 Oct. 1930-30 Sept. 1931, 7-8.
85. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," 29; "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 22: 1, and 23 Oct. 1932, 20: 3; Salvation Army, "Report of Unemployment Emergency Relief Work in Greater New York," 1 Oct. 1930-30 Sept. 1931, 7-8.
86. Anderson, "Report on the Municipal Lodging House," 29; "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 22: 1, and 23 Oct. 1932, 20: 3; Salvation Army, "Report of Unemployment Emergency Relief Work in Greater New York," 1 Oct. 1930-30 Sept. 1931, 7-8.
87. Evidence of people not seeing things is everywhere. See, for example, "Conference on the Coming Winter," 25-26 Sept. 1930, CSS Papers, box 158; Gilbert Seldes, The Years of the Locust: America, 1929-1932 (Boston: Little Brown, 1933), 155; "The stories were whispered," Caroline Bird writes in The Invisible Scar (New York: David McKay, 1966), 199. For a broadly historical observation, see Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York: Random House, 1953), 106-7.
88. Evidence of people not seeing things is everywhere. See, for example, "Conference on the Coming Winter," 25-26 Sept. 1930, CSS Papers, box 158; Gilbert Seldes, The Years of the Locust: America, 1929-1932 (Boston: Little Brown, 1933), 155; "The stories were whispered," Caroline Bird writes in The Invisible Scar (New York: David McKay, 1966), 199. For a broadly historical observation, see Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York: Random House, 1953), 106-7.
89. Evidence of people not seeing things is everywhere. See, for example, "Conference on the Coming Winter," 25-26 Sept. 1930, CSS Papers, box 158; Gilbert Seldes, The Years of the Locust: America, 1929-1932 (Boston: Little Brown, 1933), 155; "The stories were whispered," Caroline Bird writes in The Invisible Scar (New York: David McKay, 1966), 199. For a broadly historical observation, see Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York: Random House, 1953), 106-7.
90. Evidence of people not seeing things is everywhere. See, for example, "Conference on the Coming Winter," 25-26 Sept. 1930, CSS Papers, box 158; Gilbert Seldes, The Years of the Locust: America, 1929-1932 (Boston: Little Brown, 1933), 155; "The stories were whispered," Caroline Bird writes in The Invisible Scar (New York: David McKay, 1966), 199. For a broadly historical observation, see Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (New York: Random House, 1953), 106-7.
91. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
92. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
93. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
94. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
95. Kessler-Harris, Out to Work; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Elizabeth Jameson, All That Glitters: Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple Creek (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).
96. Lois Scharf, To Work and to Wed: Female Employment, Feminism, and the Great Depression (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), intro. and chap. 3.
97. "Correspondence Aug.-Dec. 1933," Women's Bureau Bulletin, no. 139 (1933).
98. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 92 (February 1992): 19-54; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87-106; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19 (winter 1994): 318-19; Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 119-21, 128-32; and Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman,' and Consumer Culture," in Gender and American History since 1890, ed. Barbara Melosh (New York: Routledge, 1993), 127-54.
99. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 92 (February 1992): 19-54; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87-106; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19 (winter 1994): 318-19; Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 119-21, 128-32; and Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman,' and Consumer Culture," in Gender and American History since 1890, ed. Barbara Melosh (New York: Routledge, 1993), 127-54.
100. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 92 (February 1992): 19-54; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87-106; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19 (winter 1994): 318-19; Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 119-21, 128-32; and Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman,' and Consumer Culture," in Gender and American History since 1890, ed. Barbara Melosh (New York: Routledge, 1993), 127-54.
101. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 92 (February 1992): 19-54; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87-106; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19 (winter 1994): 318-19; Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 119-21, 128-32; and Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman,' and Consumer Culture," in Gender and American History since 1890, ed. Barbara Melosh (New York: Routledge, 1993), 127-54.
102. Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 92 (February 1992): 19-54; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 87-106; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, "A Genealogy of Dependency: Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State," Signs 19 (winter 1994): 318-19; Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), 119-21, 128-32; and Ellen Wiley Todd, "Art, the 'New Woman,' and Consumer Culture," in Gender and American History
103. Col. Woods, "Preliminary (Progress) Report of PECE," n.d. (ca. 1931), 6, Central Files PECE, National Archives; Kessler-Harris, Out to Work, 251-54; Scharf, 140; and Fraser and Gordon, 319.
104. Col. Woods, "Preliminary (Progress) Report of PECE," n.d. (ca. 1931), 6, Central Files PECE, National Archives; Kessler-Harris, Out to Work, 251-54; Scharf, 140; and Fraser and Gordon, 319.
105. Cora Kasius, "Depression Years," May 1938, CSS Papers, box 115; Meyerowitz, 96-97.
106. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
107. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
108. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
109. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
110. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
111. Albert U. Romasco, The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 44; "What about This Man?" Wald Papers, reel 36, box 34; "Police Department, City of New York, Procedure for Relief of Unemployed," 8 Nov. 1930, CSS Papers, box 115. For mention of the voluntary contributions of city employees, see "Mayor Acts to End Evictions of Needy," New York Times, 26 Oct. 1930, 20: 3; Kasius, 5; "Conference on the Coming Winter," CSS Papers, box 158; "Welfare Council Reports," 1932, Wald Papers, reel 37.
112. "New York Emergency Work Committee," Report, December 1931-May 1932, 19, CSS Papers, box 150. Neither New York City nor Philadelphia paid rents for "unattached women." Agnes V. O'Shea, "Development of the Care of Transient Women," The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Clague, 9; Helmbold, 35-37; Channels (November-December 1930): 2; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 152.
113. "New York Emergency Work Committee," Report, December 1931-May 1932, 19, CSS Papers, box 150. Neither New York City nor Philadelphia paid rents for "unattached women." Agnes V. O'Shea, "Development of the Care of Transient Women," The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Clague, 9; Helmbold, 35-37; Channels (November-December 1930): 2; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 152.
114. "New York Emergency Work Committee," Report, December 1931-May 1932, 19, CSS Papers, box 150. Neither New York City nor Philadelphia paid rents for "unattached women." Agnes V. O'Shea, "Development of the Care of Transient Women," The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Clague, 9; Helmbold, 35-37; Channels (November-December 1930): 2; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 152.
115. "New York Emergency Work Committee," Report, December 1931-May 1932, 19, CSS Papers, box 150. Neither New York City nor Philadelphia paid rents for "unattached women." Agnes V. O'Shea, "Development of the Care of Transient Women," The Transient 1 (November 1934): 3; Clague, 9; Helmbold, 35-37; Channels (November-December 1930): 2; Le Sueur, "Women Are Hungry," 152.
116. "Outstanding Facts Brought Out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Central Registration Bureau for Women, Welfare Council of New York City, Women's Bureau Bulletin, no. 158 (November-December 1932). Not until 1934 was relief extended to unattached women and men. Mary Simkhovitch is quoted in Lorena Hickok, One Third of a Nation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 49.
117. "Outstanding Facts Brought Out by Statistics for October, November, and December 1932," Central Registration Bureau for Women, Welfare Council of New York City, Women's Bureau Bulletin, no. 158 (November-December 1932). Not until 1934 was relief extended to unattached women and men. Mary Simkhovitch is quoted in Lorena Hickok, One Third of a Nation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 49.
118. Irving Bernstein, The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-1933 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1960), 296-301; "Emergency Work Bureau Committee Minutes of Meetings," 15 Jan. 1931; Matthews, 44.
119. Irving Bernstein, The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-1933 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1960), 296-301; "Emergency Work Bureau Committee Minutes of Meetings," 15 Jan. 1931; Matthews, 44.
120. POUR, "Diocese of New York," Report, 1931, Wald Papers, 34; an article in the New York Herald Tribune, 18 Nov. 1930, 3: 5, reported that "the greatest need of the unemployed girl in New York City was a fifty-cent hotel."
121. POUR, "Diocese of New York," Report, 1931, Wald Papers, 34; an article in the New York Herald Tribune, 18 Nov. 1930, 3: 5, reported that "the greatest need of the unemployed girl in New York City was a fifty-cent hotel."
122. "Single and Unattached Women and Girls," Emergency Work Bureau Committee Minutes of Meetings, 10 Feb. 1931, CSS Papers, box 75. On the limits of voluntarism during a national crisis, see John F. Bauman and Thomas H. Coode, In the Eye of the Great Depression: New Deal Reporters and the Agony of the American People (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988), 8, 39, 42.
123. "Single and Unattached Women and Girls," Emergency Work Bureau Committee Minutes of Meetings, 10 Feb. 1931, CSS Papers, box 75. On the limits of voluntarism during a national crisis, see John F. Bauman and Thomas H. Coode, In the Eye of the Great Depression: New Deal Reporters and the Agony of the American People (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988), 8, 39, 42.
124. "Welfare Council Confidential Reports of Coordinating Committee on Unemployment, 1934-35," CSS Papers, box 185; Gladys L. Palmer, "Is the Average Unemployed Worker Employable?" in "Depression Jobs: A Study of Job Openings in the Philadelphia Employment Office," 19 May 1934, Wald Papers, reel 34, box 34. As with every other statistic, no two studies agree: Swinney, Table 11, 148; Foran, 62; Clague, 14-15, 40.
125. "Welfare Council Confidential Reports of Coordinating Committee on Unemployment, 1934-35," CSS Papers, box 185; Gladys L. Palmer, "Is the Average Unemployed Worker Employable?" in "Depression Jobs: A Study of Job Openings in the Philadelphia Employment Office," 19 May 1934, Wald Papers, reel 34, box 34. As with every other statistic, no two studies agree: Swinney, Table 11, 148; Foran, 62; Clague, 14-15, 40.
126. New York Times, 1 Aug. 2001, 1.