At the nexus of labor and leisure: Baseball, nativism, and the 1919 Black Sox scandal

Journal of Social History

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2003, Pages

  Bachin, Robin F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 30244462720     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0078     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
2. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
3. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
4. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
5. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
6. For further discussion of the Black Sox scandal, see Eliot Asinof, Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series (New York, 1963), Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), 232-35, Harvey Frommer, Shoeless Joe and Ragtime Baseball (Dallas, 1992), Robert I. Goler, "Black Sox," Chicago History (Fall and Winter, 1988-1989), 42-69, Steven A. Riess, Touching Base: Professional Baseball and American Culture in the Progressive Era (Westport, CT, 1980), 67-73, and Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Golden Years, vol. 2 (New York, 1971), 294-339.
7. For further discussion of the Black Sox Scandal and its representation in popular culture, see Daniel A. Nathan, "Saying It's So: A Cultural History of the Black Sox Scandal of 1919" (Urbana, 2003) esp. chap. 1 and 2. Recent films, including Eight Men Out (based on the Asinoff book) and Field of Dreams, offer more sympathetic accounts of the role of the players in the scandal. John Sayles' Eight Men Out also highlights the role of labor issues in shaping the unfolding of the scandal. Nathan analyzes these cultural representations of the scandal - in newspapers, novels, and film - and suggests how the reappearance and shifting mythology of the scandal reflects broader changes in American ideas of innocence and nostalgia.
8. James T. Farrell, My Baseball Diary (New York, 1957), 106.
9. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," Social Text 25/26 (1990), 56-80; 57. For further discussion of the process of creating and defining public spheres, see Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); and Robert C. Holub, Jurgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London and New York, 1991).
10. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," Social Text 25/26 (1990), 56-80; 57. For further discussion of the process of creating and defining public spheres, see Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); and Robert C. Holub, Jurgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London and New York, 1991).
11. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," Social Text 25/26 (1990), 56-80; 57. For further discussion of the process of creating and defining public spheres, see Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); and Robert C. Holub, Jurgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London and New York, 1991).
12. Nancy Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy," Social Text 25/26 (1990), 56-80; 57. For further discussion of the process of creating and defining public spheres, see Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); and Robert C. Holub, Jurgen Habermas: Critic in the Public Sphere (London and New York, 1991).
13. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
14. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
15. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
16. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
17. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
18. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
19. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
20. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
21. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
22. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
23. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
24. For further discussion of the links between urban culture, leisure, and space, see Richard Butsch, For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World (New York, 1994); Lewis Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York City Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn., 1981); Richard Wightman Fox and T.J. Jackson Lears, eds., "Introduction," in The Power of Culture: Critical Essays in American History (Chicago, 1993); Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 131-180); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989), 127-150; Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City (Cambridge, 1983); Robert Rotenberg and Gary McDonogh, eds., "Introduction," in The Cultural Meaning of Urban Space (Westport, CT, 1993); William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York, 1992); and Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991).
25. New York Times, Nov. 9, 1918.
26. Theodore Roosevelt, quoted in William D. Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air: America in 1919 (Urbana, 1991), 60.
27. Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877-1919 (New York, 1987), 303-04.
28. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
29. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
30. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
31. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
32. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
33. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
34. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
35. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
36. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
37. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
38. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
39. For further discussion of nativism after World War I, see Eliot Asinof, 1919: America's Loss of Innocence (New York, 1989); Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill, 1990); John Higham, Send These to Me: Immigrants in Urban America (Baltimore, 1984), esp. chapter 2; Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 194-263; David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York, 1980); Richard Lindberg, Chicago Ragtime: Another Look at Chicago, 1880-1920 (South Bend, IN, 1985); Henry F. May, The End of American Innocence: The First Years of Our Own Times, 1912-1917 (Oxford, 1959); Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, and Pluralism (Durham, NC, 1995); Miller, Pretty Bubbles in the Air; Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (New York, 1964); Roderick Nash, The Nervous Generation: American Thought, 1917-1930 (Chicago, 1970); and Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 306-390.
40. Daniel T. Rodgers, The Work Ethic in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Chicago 1978), 102.
41. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
42. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
43. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
44. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
45. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
46. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
47. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
48. Benjamin McArthur, "Parks, Playgrounds, and Progressivism," in A Breath of Fresh Air: Chicago's Neighborhood Parks of the Progressive Reform Era, 1900-1925 (Chicago, 1989), 13. For more on the play movement, see Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 1978); Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia, 1981); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1840-1940 (Stanford, 1999), especially chapter 3; Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York, 1979); Elizabeth Halsey, Development of Public Recreation in Metropolitan Chicago (Chicago, 1940), 8, 115, and Riess, City Games, 132-168. See also Benjamin McArthur, "The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice," Social Science Review 49 (Sept. 1975), 376-95, 379.
49. City of Chicago, Annual Report of the South Park Commission, 1905, pp. 48. See also Annual Report of the Special Park Commissioners, 1909, 26-8.
50. City of Chicago, Annual Report of the South Park Commission, 1905, pp. 48. See also Annual Report of the Special Park Commissioners, 1909, 26-8.
51. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
52. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
53. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
54. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
55. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
56. Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York, 1909), 147. See also Cavallo's discussion of progressive theories of play in Muscles and Morals, 9, 55-70. Allen Guttmann supports Cavallo's contention that supervised play was not merely an example of bourgeois social control, and takes issue with Cary Goodman's argument that the playground movement reflected the hegemony of middle-class aspirations. William Gleason and Gerald Gems also highlight the element of social control involved in the play movement. Yet often these discussions fail to differentiate among the rhetorics of play theorists such as Joseph Lee, Henry Curtis, Luther Halsey Gulick, and other progressive reformers (including Jane Addams and John Dewey) who argued that play opened up new arenas for diverse cultural expression and exchange. See Gerald R. Gems, Windy City Wars: Labor, Leisure, and Sport in the Making of Chicago (Lanham, Md., 1997); William A. Gleason, The Leisure Ethic, 99-114; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 88-89; See also David A. Karp, Gregory P. Stone, and William C. Yoels, Being Urban: A Sociology of City Life (New York, 1991), 200 for a discussion of the play movement as a contest for the urban space and leisure time of immigrant children.
57. Quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 25.
58. Henry Curtis, The Practical Conduct of Play (New York, 1915), 212.
59. See Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will
60. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
61. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
62. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
63. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
64. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
65. For further discussion of ethnic athletic clubs and their role in creating a "bachelor subculture," see Melvin L. Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-1870 (Urbana, 1990), 224; Gems, Windy City Wars, 25-30; Elliott J. Gorn and Warren Goldstein, A Brief History of American Sports (New York, 1993), 14, 70-72, Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983), 97-98, Rader, "The Quest for Subcommunities and the Rise of American Sport," in Paul J. Zingg, ed., The Sporting Image: Readings in American Sport History (Lanham, MD, 1988), 142, and Riess, City Games, 16, 22-25. My discussion of changing views of "manliness" is largely informed by Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 80.
66. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal
67. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
68. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
69. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
70. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
71. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
72. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
73. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
74. For further discussion of gender and athletics, see Susan K. Cahn, Coming On Strong: Gender and Sexuality in Twentieth-Century Women's Sport (New York, 1994), especially chaps. 1-3; George Eisen, "Sport, Recreation and Gender: Jewish Immigrant Women in Turn-of-the-Century America (1880-1920)," Journal of Sport History 18 (Spring 1991), 103-120; Allen Guttmann, Women's Sports, A History (New York, 1991); Helen Lenskyj, Out of Bounds; Women, Sport, and Sexuality (Toronto, 1986); Michael Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, Il, 1990); Gregory Kent Stanley, The Rise and Fall of the Sportswoman: Women's Health, Fitness, and Athletics, 1860-1940 (New York, 1996); Stephanie L. Twin, Out of the Bleachers: Writing on Women and Sport (Old Westbury, NY, 1979); Twin, "Women and Sport," in Donald Spivey, ed., Sport in America: New Historical Perspectives (Westport, Conn., 1985), 193-217; and Patricia A. Vertinsky, The Eternally Wounded Woman; Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1990).
75. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
76. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
77. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
78. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
79. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
80. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
81. For general histories of professional baseball, see Adelman, A Sporting Time; Charles C. Alexander, Our Game: An American Baseball History (New York, 1991); Warren Goldstein, Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball (Ithaca, NY, 1989); Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York, 1978); Riess, Touching Base, Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1, and Baseball: The Golden Age, vol. 2 (New York, 1960 and 1971); and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1, and From the Commissioners to the Continental Expansion, vol. 2 (Norman, OK, 1966 and 1970).
82. Quoted in Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 11.
83. Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 209, Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 35, Riess, Touching Base, 122.
84. Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 209, Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 35, Riess, Touching Base, 122.
85. Gorn and Goldstein, A Brief History, 209, Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 35, Riess, Touching Base, 122.
86. Edward B. Moss, "The Fan and His Ways," Harper's Weekly 54 (June 11, 1910), 13. Also quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 24. Though promoters touted professional baseball as a unifying game promoting civic pride and community cohesion, they did not consider racial integration one of baseball's goals. Teams were forbidden to have African-American players as of 1867. Baseball nonetheless played a central role in African-American communities, and the development of the Negro National League illustrates its role in black professional and entrepreneurial growth as well. See Robert W. Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), and Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York, 1983).
87. Edward B. Moss, "The Fan and His Ways," Harper's Weekly 54 (June 11, 1910), 13. Also quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 24. Though promoters touted professional baseball as a unifying game promoting civic pride and community cohesion, they did not consider racial integration one of baseball's goals. Teams were forbidden to have African-American players as of 1867. Baseball nonetheless played a central role in African-American communities, and the development of the Negro National League illustrates its role in black professional and entrepreneurial growth as well. See Robert W. Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), and Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York, 1983).
88. Edward B. Moss, "The Fan and His Ways," Harper's Weekly 54 (June 11, 1910), 13. Also quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 24. Though promoters touted professional baseball as a unifying game promoting civic pride and community cohesion, they did not consider racial integration one of baseball's goals. Teams were forbidden to have African-American players as of 1867. Baseball nonetheless played a central role in African-American communities, and the development of the Negro National League illustrates its role in black professional and entrepreneurial growth as well. See Robert W. Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), and Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York, 1983).
89. Edward B. Moss, "The Fan and His Ways," Harper's Weekly 54 (June 11, 1910), 13. Also quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 24. Though promoters touted professional baseball as a unifying game promoting civic pride and community cohesion, they did not consider racial integration one of baseball's goals. Teams were forbidden to have African-American players as of 1867. Baseball nonetheless played a central role in African-American communities, and the development of the Negro National League illustrates its role in black professional and entrepreneurial growth as well. See Robert W. Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), and Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York, 1983).
90. Edward B. Moss, "The Fan and His Ways," Harper's Weekly 54 (June 11, 1910), 13. Also quoted in Riess, Touching Base, 24. Though promoters touted professional baseball as a unifying game promoting civic pride and community cohesion, they did not consider racial integration one of baseball's goals. Teams were forbidden to have African-American players as of 1867. Baseball nonetheless played a central role in African-American communities, and the development of the Negro National League illustrates its role in black professional and entrepreneurial growth as well. See Robert W. Peterson, Only the Ball Was White (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970), Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Urbana, 1987), and Jules Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York, 1983).
91. Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 149. Goldstein argues that baseball has followed two paths throughout its history. Baseball's relationship with money shapes what Goldstein refers to as the "linear" history of the game, while its emotional and mythic element lends itself to a cyclical history, defined by attempts to recreate a "golden age." I agree with this assessment, but would go further and argue that these two elements or baseball history are integrally related. During periods when labor and money issues became more prominent, baseball proponents were more likely to construct baseball as a pastoral, pre-industrial activity removed from the world of the marketplace. See Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 70.
92. Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 149. Goldstein argues that baseball has followed two paths throughout its history. Baseball's relationship with money shapes what Goldstein refers to as the "linear" history of the game, while its emotional and mythic element lends itself to a cyclical history, defined by attempts to recreate a "golden age." I agree with this assessment, but would go further and argue that these two elements or baseball history are integrally related. During periods when labor and money issues became more prominent, baseball proponents were more likely to construct baseball as a pastoral, pre-industrial activity removed from the world of the marketplace. See Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 70.
93. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
94. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
95. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
96. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
97. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
98. For further discussion of labor relations and baseball, see Robert F. Burk, Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 (Chapel Hill, 1994), Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 134-149; Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill, 1988), 61-69; William A. Hulbert, "The National Game," in James Franklin Aldrich Papers, Box 1, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Lee Lowenfish, The Imperfect Diamond: A History of America's Labor Wars (New York, 1991); and Edward G. White, Creating the National Pastime: Baseball Transforms Itself (Princeton, 1996).
99. John Montgomery Ward, "The Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players' Manifesto" (1889), quoted in Anthony J. Connor, Baseball for the Love of It; Hall of Famers Tell It Like It Was (New York, 1982), 216.
100. Riess, Touching Base, pp. 156-157; Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1 (New York, 1960 and 1971), pp. 267-270; and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1 (Norman, 1966 and 1970), 233-234.
101. Riess, Touching Base, pp. 156-157; Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1 (New York, 1960 and 1971), pp. 267-270; and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1 (Norman, 1966 and 1970), 233-234.
102. Riess, Touching Base, pp. 156-157; Harold Seymour, Baseball: the Early Years, vol. 1 (New York, 1960 and 1971), pp. 267-270; and David Q. Voigt, American Baseball: From Gentleman's Sport to the Commissioner System, vol. 1 (Norman, 1966 and 1970), 233-234.
103. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
104. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
105. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
106. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
107. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
108. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
109. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
110. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 207-209; Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game, 65-69; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 88-90; Seymour, The Golden Age, 212, 230-34; and Voigt, American Baseball, vol. 2, pp. 21, 81. For discussions of the cartel-like structure of professional sports, see Charles Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore, 1993); Mark S. Rosentraub, Major League Losers: The Real Cost of Sports and Who's Paying for It (New York, 1997); and Kenneth L. Shropshire, The Sports Franchise Game: Cities in Pursuit of Sports Franchises, Events, Stadiums, and Arenas (Philadelphia, 1995).
111. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
112. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
113. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
114. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
115. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
116. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
117. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
118. "The Steel Strike," Literary Digest 63 (Oct. 4, 1919), 9-13. For further discussion of the steel strike and anti-union sentiment, see David Brody, Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (Philadelphia, 1965); Melvin Dubofsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (Urbana, 1988); William Z. Foster, The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons (New York, 1920); Interchurch World Movement of North America, Report on the Steel Strike of 1919 (New York, 1920); David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism (Cambridge, 1987); Painter, Standing at Armageddon, 370-75; and Rodgers, The Work Ethic.
119. Tuscaloosa News article, quoted in "The Steel Strike," 12.
120. "The Steel Strike," 12.
121. NYT, Oct. 3, 1919, Oct. 5, 1919, Oct. 1, 1919.
122. For further discussion of the Red Scare see Asinoff, 1919; Miller, Pretty Bubbles; and Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (Minneapolis, 1955).
123. For further discussion of the Red Scare see Asinoff, 1919; Miller, Pretty Bubbles; and Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (Minneapolis, 1955).
124. For further discussion of the Red Scare see Asinoff, 1919; Miller, Pretty Bubbles; and Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (Minneapolis, 1955).
125. NYT, Oct. 9, 1919.
126. Cohen, "Baseball," The Dial (July 26, 1919), 57.
127. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
128. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
129. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
130. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
131. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
132. Joe Jackson went to work for a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel, and played on the company team. Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 219; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 68-69, 79-84; Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh, 42; Seymour, The Golden Age, pp. 244-47. For further discussion of industrial athletic teams, see Gems, Windy City Wars; and Steven Riess, Sport in Industrial America, 1850-1920 (Wheeling, Il, 1995).
133. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 220-221; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 96; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 251-52.
134. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 220-221; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 96; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 251-52.
135. See Burk, Never Just a Game, 220-221; Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 96; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 251-52.
136. Joe Jackson earned $6,000 per year, while Buck Weaver, Chick Gandil, and Happy Felsch each earned $4,000. Eddie Cicotte, the White Sox star pitcher, earned $5,500 even though many believed him to be the best pitcher in the league after Walter Johnson. In 1917, when the White Sox won the World Series, Charles Comiskey promised Cicotte a $10,000 bonus if he won thirty games. When Cicotte was close to achieving that mark, Comiskey benched him so he came up short. See Asinof, Eight Men Out, 15-20; Burk, Never Just a Game, 233; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 86; and Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 98-99. Frommer follows Asinof's lead by suggesting that the White Sox were one of the lowest paid teams in 1919. Burk's appendix for player salaries, however, illustrates that the White Sox in general were earning salaries commensurate with those paid other teams, though the other teams did not have the same earning power in gate receipts that the Sox had. See Burk, Never Just a Game, Appendix Figures 1 and 5, 243, 247.
137. Joe Jackson earned $6,000 per year, while Buck Weaver, Chick Gandil, and Happy Felsch each earned $4,000. Eddie Cicotte, the White Sox star pitcher, earned $5,500 even though many believed him to be the best pitcher in the league after Walter Johnson. In 1917, when the White Sox won the World Series, Charles Comiskey promised Cicotte a $10,000 bonus if he won thirty games. When Cicotte was close to achieving that mark, Comiskey benched him so he came up short. See Asinof, Eight Men Out, 15-20; Burk, Never Just a Game, 233; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 86; and Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 98-99. Frommer follows Asinof's lead by suggesting that the White Sox were one of the lowest paid teams in 1919. Burk's appendix for player salaries, however, illustrates that the White Sox in general were earning salaries commensurate with those paid other teams, though the other teams did not have the same earning power in gate receipts that the Sox had. See Burk, Never Just a Game, Appendix Figures 1 and 5, 243, 247.
138. Joe Jackson earned $6,000 per year, while Buck Weaver, Chick Gandil, and Happy Felsch each earned $4,000. Eddie Cicotte, the White Sox star pitcher, earned $5,500 even though many believed him to be the best pitcher in the league after Walter Johnson. In 1917, when the White Sox won the World Series, Charles Comiskey promised Cicotte a $10,000 bonus if he won thirty games. When Cicotte was close to achieving that mark, Comiskey benched him so he came up short. See Asinof, Eight Men Out, 15-20; Burk, Never Just a Game, 233; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 86; and Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 98-99. Frommer follows Asinof's lead by suggesting that the White Sox were one of the lowest paid teams in 1919. Burk's appendix for player salaries, however, illustrates that the White Sox in general were earning salaries commensurate with those paid other teams, though the other teams did not have the same earning power in gate receipts that the Sox had. See Burk, Never Just a Game, Appendix Figures 1 and 5, 243, 247.
139. Joe Jackson earned $6,000 per year, while Buck Weaver, Chick Gandil, and Happy Felsch each earned $4,000. Eddie Cicotte, the White Sox star pitcher, earned $5,500 even though many believed him to be the best pitcher in the league after Walter Johnson. In 1917, when the White Sox won the World Series, Charles Comiskey promised Cicotte a $10,000 bonus if he won thirty games. When Cicotte was close to achieving that mark, Comiskey benched him so he came up short. See Asinof, Eight Men Out, 15-20; Burk, Never Just a Game, 233; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 86; and Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 98-99. Frommer follows Asinof's lead by suggesting that the White Sox were one of the lowest paid teams in 1919. Burk's appendix for player salaries, however, illustrates that the White Sox in general were earning salaries commensurate with those paid other teams, though the other teams did not have the same earning power in gate receipts that the Sox had. See Burk, Never Just a Game, Appendix Figures 1 and 5, 243, 247.
140. Joe Jackson earned $6,000 per year, while Buck Weaver, Chick Gandil, and Happy Felsch each earned $4,000. Eddie Cicotte, the White Sox star pitcher, earned $5,500 even though many believed him to be the best pitcher in the league after Walter Johnson. In 1917, when the White Sox won the World Series, Charles Comiskey promised Cicotte a $10,000 bonus if he won thirty games. When Cicotte was close to achieving that mark, Comiskey benched him so he came up short. See Asinof, Eight Men Out, 15-20; Burk, Never Just a Game, 233; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 86; and Lowenfish, Imperfect Diamond, 98-99. Frommer follows Asinof's lead by suggesting that the White Sox were one of the lowest paid teams in 1919. Burk's appendix for player salaries, however, illustrates that the White Sox in general were earning salaries commensurate with those paid other teams, though the other teams did not have the same earning power in gate receipts that the Sox had. See Burk, Never Just a Game, Appendix Figures 1 and 5, 243, 247.
141. The Chicago Daily News reported, "Before the World Series it was not thought possible the Cincinnati Reds could win from the Chicago White Sox.... The Reds were not given a ghost of a chance, because it was thought they won in an inferior league and therefore were greatly inferior to the tribe piloted by Manager Kid Gleason. Some even said it was a crime to pit the Reds against the South Siders." Chicago Daily News, Oct. 10, 1919.
142. An editorial in Baseball Magazine argued, "If a man really knows so little about baseball that he believes the game is or can be fixed, he should keep his mouth shut in the presence of intelligent people." Baseball Magazine (November 1919), quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 119.
143. Chicago Daily News, Oct. 11, 1919. The Reds were quick to point to the legitimacy of their titles too. Reds manager Pat Moran argued, "The best team won the series, and don't you forget it." Chicago Herald Examiner, Oct. 1, 1920.
144. Chicago Daily News, Oct. 11, 1919. The Reds were quick to point to the legitimacy of their titles too. Reds manager Pat Moran argued, "The best team won the series, and don't you forget it." Chicago Herald Examiner, Oct. 1, 1920.
145. See Chicago Tribune, Chicago Herald and Examiner, NYT, Sept. 8, 1920. See also Asinof, Eight Men Out, 149-160; Burk, Never Just a Game, 231-33; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 130-134; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 300-305, 384-85.
146. See Chicago Tribune, Chicago Herald and Examiner, NYT, Sept. 8, 1920. See also Asinof, Eight Men Out, 149-160; Burk, Never Just a Game, 231-33; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 130-134; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 300-305, 384-85.
147. See Chicago Tribune, Chicago Herald and Examiner, NYT, Sept. 8, 1920. See also Asinof, Eight Men Out, 149-160; Burk, Never Just a Game, 231-33; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 130-134; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 300-305, 384-85.
148. See Chicago Tribune, Chicago Herald and Examiner, NYT, Sept. 8, 1920. See also Asinof, Eight Men Out, 149-160; Burk, Never Just a Game, 231-33; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 130-134; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 300-305, 384-85.
149. See Chicago Tribune, Chicago Herald and Examiner, NYT, Sept. 8, 1920. See also Asinof, Eight Men Out, 149-160; Burk, Never Just a Game, 231-33; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 130-134; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 300-305, 384-85.
150. See above, as well as the Chicago Tribune, Herald and Examiner, Record-Herald, NYT, Sept. 29, 1920.
151. The earliest known instance of players fixing games was in 1865, when Thomas Devyr, William Wansley, and Edward Duffy of New York Mutuals confessed to "selling" a game against the Eckfords. Devyr was expelled, but brought back one year later when his team needed a shortstop. Two protests were lodged against the team for playing Devyr during the 1867 season, and the Judiciary Committee of the National Association voted to expel him. Later that year the decision was reversed and Devyr was reinstated. See Adelman, Sporting Time, 160-161; Burk, Never Just a Game, 31; Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 90-92; and Seymour, The Early Years, 51-53.
152. The earliest known instance of players fixing games was in 1865, when Thomas Devyr, William Wansley, and Edward Duffy of New York Mutuals confessed to "selling" a game against the Eckfords. Devyr was expelled, but brought back one year later when his team needed a shortstop. Two protests were lodged against the team for playing Devyr during the 1867 season, and the Judiciary Committee of the National Association voted to expel him. Later that year the decision was reversed and Devyr was reinstated. See Adelman, Sporting Time, 160-161; Burk, Never Just a Game, 31; Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 90-92; and Seymour, The Early Years, 51-53.
153. The earliest known instance of players fixing games was in 1865, when Thomas Devyr, William Wansley, and Edward Duffy of New York Mutuals confessed to "selling" a game against the Eckfords. Devyr was expelled, but brought back one year later when his team needed a shortstop. Two protests were lodged against the team for playing Devyr during the 1867 season, and the Judiciary Committee of the National Association voted to expel him. Later that year the decision was reversed and Devyr was reinstated. See Adelman, Sporting Time, 160-161; Burk, Never Just a Game, 31; Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 90-92; and Seymour, The Early Years, 51-53.
154. The earliest known instance of players fixing games was in 1865, when Thomas Devyr, William Wansley, and Edward Duffy of New York Mutuals confessed to "selling" a game against the Eckfords. Devyr was expelled, but brought back one year later when his team needed a shortstop. Two protests were lodged against the team for playing Devyr during the 1867 season, and the Judiciary Committee of the National Association voted to expel him. Later that year the decision was reversed and Devyr was reinstated. See Adelman, Sporting Time, 160-161; Burk, Never Just a Game, 31; Goldstein, Playing for Keeps, 90-92; and Seymour, The Early Years, 51-53.
155. "The Baseball Scandal," The Nation (Oct. 13, 1920), 395.
156. Walter Camp, "The Truth About Baseball," North American Review (April 1921), 483.
157. Camp, "Truth," p. 487; Hugh Fullerton, "Baseball - The Sport and the Business," American Review of Reviews (April 6, 1920), 420.
158. Camp, "Truth," p. 487; Hugh Fullerton, "Baseball - The Sport and the Business," American Review of Reviews (April 6, 1920), 420.
159. Philadelphia Bulletin, quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 154.
160. Chicago Tribune, Chicago Daily News, NYT, Oct. 1, 1920. Actually, Comiskey did not divide the whole difference among the ten players, for he kept close to $500 for himself. Moreover, the total players' share of the receipts from the 1919 series was $260,249.66, while the owners' share was $389,822.94. See NYT, Oct. 10, 1919. Comiskey also offered large bonuses and salaries to the suspected players before the 1920 season, suggesting that he was more concerned with fielding a winning team than he was with punishing his "disloyal" players. See Chicago White Sox Contracts, White Sox Collection, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections.
161. See accounts in NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; "The Flaw in the Diamond," Literary Digest 67 (Oct. 9, 1920), 12-13; "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 6, 1920), 219-220; and "The Gamblers and the Ballplayers," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 13, 1920), 267.
162. See accounts in NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; "The Flaw in the Diamond," Literary Digest 67 (Oct. 9, 1920), 12-13; "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 6, 1920), 219-220; and "The Gamblers and the Ballplayers," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 13, 1920), 267.
163. See accounts in NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; "The Flaw in the Diamond," Literary Digest 67 (Oct. 9, 1920), 12-13; "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 6, 1920), 219-220; and "The Gamblers and the Ballplayers," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 13, 1920), 267.
164. See accounts in NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; "The Flaw in the Diamond," Literary Digest 67 (Oct. 9, 1920), 12-13; "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 6, 1920), 219-220; and "The Gamblers and the Ballplayers," The Outlook 126 (Oct. 13, 1920), 267.
165. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
166. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
167. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
168. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
169. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
170. See The Grand Jury testimony of Joe Jackson, Sept. 28, 1920, Joe Jackson Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Special Collections; Chicago Tribune, NYT, Aug. 3, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, pp. 22-31; Burk, Never Just a Game, 232; Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 168-170; and Goler, Block Sox, 60.
171. See Chicago Tribune, NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, 240-41; and Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 159-170.
172. See Chicago Tribune, NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, 240-41; and Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 159-170.
173. See Chicago Tribune, NYT, Oct. 2, 1920; Asinof, Eight Men Out, 240-41; and Frommer, Shoeless Joe, 159-170.
174. "The Gamblers and the Ballplayers," p. 267. Interestingly, the article also argues that in order for baseball to be "kept clean" in the future, it must be run by those "interested in baseball as a sport, and not in a business way." It is the taint of commercialism associated with the game that needs to be lessened if baseball is to recover and regain its purity in the minds of fans.
175. Grand Rapids Herald article, cited in "The Flaw in the Diamond," 13.
176. J.G. Taylor Spink, The Sporting News (Oct. 1919); The Dearborn Independent (Aug. 3, 1921); The Sporting News (Aug, 1921), quoted in Asinof, Eight Men Out, 136.
177. J.G. Taylor Spink, The Sporting News (Oct. 1919); The Dearborn Independent (Aug. 3, 1921); The Sporting News (Aug, 1921), quoted in Asinof, Eight Men Out, 136.
178. J.G. Taylor Spink, The Sporting News (Oct. 1919); The Dearborn Independent (Aug. 3, 1921); The Sporting News (Aug, 1921), quoted in Asinof, Eight Men Out, 136.
179. NYT, Aug. 3, 1921.
180. See "The Flaw in the Diamond," Literary Digest (Oct. 9, 1920), 7.
181. NYT, Nov. 7, 1920.
182. See "Making the Black Sox White Again," Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); "The Flaw in the Diamond;" "The Baseball Scandal; " and "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook," (Oct. 6, 1920).
183. See "Making the Black Sox White Again," Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); "The Flaw in the Diamond;" "The Baseball Scandal; " and "For Honest Baseball," The Outlook," (Oct. 6, 1920).
184. Chicago Tribune, Herald and Examiner, NYT, Oct. 2, 1920.
185. Landis's salary as Commissioner of Baseball was $50,000, minus his federal salary of $7,500. "A Super-Umpire for Baseball," The Outlook 126 (Nov. 24, 1920), 535.
186. "Judge Landis, The New Czar of Baseballdom," Literary Digest (Dec. 4, 1920). See also Burk, Never Just a Game, 235-240.
187. "Judge Landis, The New Czar of Baseballdom," Literary Digest (Dec. 4, 1920). See also Burk, Never Just a Game, 235-240.
188. New York World, quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, p. 170; Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); New York Evening Post, Jan. 28, 1927; and "Judge Landis, the New Czar."
189. New York World, quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, p. 170; Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); New York Evening Post, Jan. 28, 1927; and "Judge Landis, the New Czar."
190. New York World, quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, p. 170; Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); New York Evening Post, Jan. 28, 1927; and "Judge Landis, the New Czar."
191. New York World, quoted in Frommer, Shoeless Joe, p. 170; Literary Digest (Aug. 20, 1921); New York Evening Post, Jan. 28, 1927; and "Judge Landis, the New Czar."
192. Landis also was responsible for maintaining the "gentlemen's agreement" banning African-Americans from major league baseball. See Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment, pp. 30-46, for further discussion of Landis's role in keeping blacks out of the major leagues. Despite consistently denying any formal ban on black players, both owners and players knew that as long as Landis was at the helm, segregation would remain. According to Tygiel, Landis's death in 1944 "eliminated one of the most implacable and influential opponents of integration." Tygiel, p. 41. Landis also came under fire by some critics who charged him with undermining the judiciary by collecting a salary from baseball magnates, the very group that had been charged with violating the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Congressman Benjamin Welty of Ohio brought impeachment charges against Landis, arguing that if Landis "wants to retain the confidence and respect as a judge he must divorce himself from the fleshpots of illegal combinations." See "Judge Landis Under Fire," Literary Digest 68 (March 12, 1921), 40-44, 42.
193. Landis also was responsible for maintaining the "gentlemen's agreement" banning African-Americans from major league baseball. See Tygiel, Baseball's Great Experiment, pp. 30-46, for further discussion of
194. See "Judge Landis, the New Czar;" Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 232; Melvyn Dubofsky, "Big Bill" Haywood (New York, 1987); Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 155-58; Goler, "Black Sox," 64; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 311-312.
195. See "Judge Landis, the New Czar;" Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 232; Melvyn Dubofsky, "Big Bill" Haywood (New York, 1987); Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 155-58; Goler, "Black Sox," 64; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 311-312.
196. See "Judge Landis, the New Czar;" Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 232; Melvyn Dubofsky, "Big Bill" Haywood (New York, 1987); Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 155-58; Goler, "Black Sox," 64; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 311-312.
197. See "Judge Landis, the New Czar;" Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 232; Melvyn Dubofsky, "Big Bill" Haywood (New York, 1987); Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 155-58; Goler, "Black Sox," 64; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 311-312.
198. See "Judge Landis, the New Czar;" Burk, Never Just a Game, p. 232; Melvyn Dubofsky, "Big Bill" Haywood (New York, 1987); Frommer, Shoeless Joe, pp. 155-58; Goler, "Black Sox," 64; and Seymour, The Golden Age, 311-312.
199. For further discussion of the conflation of radicalism, foreignness, and race, see Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britian and the United States between the World Wars (New York, 1992); Thomas F. Gosset, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York, 1965); David R, Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States," in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), 181-198; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), especially Chap. 6; and William S. Sadler, M.D., Race Decadence: An Examination of the Causes of Racial Degeneracy in the United States (Chicago, 1922).
200. For further discussion of the conflation of radicalism, foreignness, and race, see Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britian and the United States between the World Wars (New York, 1992); Thomas F. Gosset, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York, 1965); David R, Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States," in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), 181-198; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), especially Chap. 6; and William S. Sadler, M.D., Race Decadence: An Examination of the Causes of Racial Degeneracy in the United States (Chicago, 1922).
201. For further discussion of the conflation of radicalism, foreignness, and race, see Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britian and the United States between the World Wars (New York, 1992); Thomas F. Gosset, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York, 1965); David R, Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States," in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), 181-198; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), especially Chap. 6; and William S. Sadler, M.D., Race Decadence: An Examination of the Causes of Racial Degeneracy in the United States (Chicago, 1922).
202. For further discussion of the conflation of radicalism, foreignness, and race, see Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britian and the United States between the World Wars (New York, 1992); Thomas F. Gosset, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York, 1965); David R, Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States," in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), 181-198; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), especially Chap. 6; and William S. Sadler, M.D., Race Decadence: An Examination of the Causes of Racial Degeneracy in the United States (Chicago, 1922).
203. For further discussion of the conflation of radicalism, foreignness, and race, see Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britian and the United States between the World Wars (New York, 1992); Thomas F. Gosset, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York, 1965); David R, Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States," in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), 181-198; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), especially Chap. 6; and William S. Sadler, M.D., Race Decadence: An Examination of the Causes of Racial Degeneracy in the United States (Chicago, 1922).
204. On nativism, ethnicity, and civic culture, Lawrence H. Fuchs, The American Kaleidoscope: Race, Ethnicity, and the Civic Culture (Hanover, 1990); Higham, Strangers in the Land; and Henry D. Shapiro and Jonathan D. Sarna, eds., Ethnic Diversity and Civic Identity; Patterns of Conflict and Cohesion in Cincinnati since 1820 (Urbana, 1992).
205. On nativism, ethnicity, and civic culture, Lawrence H. Fuchs, The American Kaleidoscope: Race, Ethnicity, and the Civic Culture (Hanover, 1990); Higham, Strangers in the Land; and Henry D. Shapiro and Jonathan D. Sarna, eds., Ethnic Diversity and Civic Identity; Patterns of Conflict and Cohesion in Cincinnati since 1820 (Urbana, 1992).