The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of dual-chamber pacemakers compared with single-chamber pacemakers for bradycardia due to atrioventricular block or sick sinus syndrome: Systematic review and economic evaluation

Health Technology Assessment

Volumn 9, Issue 43, 2005, Pages 1-129

  Castelnuovo, E ^a   Stein, K ^a   Pitt, M ^a   Garside, R ^a   Payne, E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^b Southampton Health Technology Assessments Centre   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT;

AGING; ARTIFICIAL HEART PACEMAKER; ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK; BRADYCARDIA; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCHRANE LIBRARY; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DATA BASE; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; EMBASE; EXERCISE TEST; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HUMAN; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTERNET; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MEDLINE; META ANALYSIS; MORTALITY; NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE; PACEMAKER FAILURE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PROBABILITY; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; SEX DIFFERENCE; SICK SINUS SYNDROME; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED KINGDOM; AGE; COMPLICATION; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM; ECONOMICS; HEART BLOCK; QUALITY ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC);

AGE FACTORS; BRADYCARDIA; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DECISION SUPPORT TECHNIQUES; HEART BLOCK; HUMANS; MARKOV CHAINS; PACEMAKER, ARTIFICIAL; QUALITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEARS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SICK SINUS SYNDROME;

EID: 29644445972     PISSN: 13665278     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3310/hta9430     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Camm JA. Cardiac arrythmias. In Kumar P, Clark M, editors. Clinical medicine, London: WB Saunders; 1998. pp. 658-70.
2. Mandel WJ, Jordan JL, Karagueuzian HS. Disorders of sinus function. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med 1999;1:179-86.
3. Ferrer MI. The sick sinus syndrome. Circulation 1973;47:635-41.
4. Mangrum JM, DiMarco JP. The evaluation and management of bradycardia. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:703-9.
5. Ferrer MI. The sick sinus syndrome. Circulation 1973;47:635-41.
6. North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Sick sinus syndrome. http:/www.naspe-patients.org/patients/heart_disorders/sick_sinus/ Accessed 2 February 2003.
7. De Bacquer D, de Backer G, Kornitzer M. Prevalences of ECG findings in large population based samples of men and women. Heart 2000; 84:625-33.
8. Kojic EM, Hardarson T, Sigfusson N, Sigvaldason H. The prevalence and prognosis of third-degree atrioventricular conduction block: the Reykjavik study. J Intern Med 1999;246:81-6.
9. Shaw DB, Eraut D. Prevalence and morbidity of heart block in Devon. BMJ 1970;i:144-7.
10. Ostrander LD Jr, Brandt RL, Ejelsberg MO, Epstein FH. Electrocardiographic findings among the adult population of a total natural community, Tecumseh, Michigan. Circulation 1965;31:888-98.
11. Recommendations for pacemaker prescription for symptomatic bradycardia. Report of a working party of the British Pacing and Electrophysiology Group. Br Heart J 1991;66:185-91.
12. Gaffney BJ, Wasserman AG, Rotsztain A, Rios JC. Sick sinus syndrome: mechanisms and management. Cardiovasc Clin 1980;11:7-25.
13. Rodriguez RD, Schocken DD. Update on sick sinus syndrome, a cardiac disorder of aging. Geriatrics 1990;45:26.
14. Chugh SS, Blackshear JL, Shen WK, Hammill SC, Gersh BJ. Epidemiology and natural history of atrial fibrillation: clinical implications. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:371-8.
15. Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin MH, Cinquegrani MP, Feldmaumd AM, Francis GS, et al. ACC/AHA Guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (committee to revise the 1995 guidelines for the evaluation and management of heart failure): developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation; endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America. Circulation 2001; 104:2996-3007.
16. Woodend AK, Nair RC, Tang AS. A quality of life assessment package: disease specific measure for pacemaker and cardiac rehabilitation patients. Int J Rehabil Res 1998;21:71-8.
17. Stofmeel MAM, Post MWM, Kelder JC, Grobbee DE, Van Hemel NM. Quality-of-life of pacemaker patients: a reappraisal of current instruments. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2000; 23:946-52.
18. Linde C. How to evaluate quality-of-life in pacemaker patients: problems and pitfalls. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1996;19:391-7.
19. Morley-Davies A, Cobbe SM. Cardiac pacing. Lancet 1997;349:41-6.
20. Alboni P, Menozzi C, Brignole M, Paparella N, Gaggioli G, Lolli G, et al. Effects of permanent pacemaker and oral theophylline in sick sinus syndrome, the THEOPACE study: a randomized controlled trial. Circulation 1997;96:260-6.
21. Bernstein AD, Daubert JC, Fletcher RD, Hayes DL, Luderitz B, Reynolds DW, et al. The revised NASPE/BPEG generic code for antibradycardia, adaptive-rate, and multisite pacing. North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology/British Pacing and Electrophysiology Group. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2002;25:260-4.
22. Gregoratos G, Abrams J, Epstein AE, Freedman RA, Hayes DL, Hlatky MA, et al. ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices: summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/NASPE Committee to Update the 1998 Pacemaker Guidelines). Circulation 2002;106:2145-61.
23. British Pacing and Electrophysiology Group. National pacemaker and ICD database. 2002. URL: http://www.ccad.org.uk/ccadweb.nsf
24. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Directory of clinical databases. URL: http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/docdat/records.php?t=records&id=NPDB. 2004.
25. Yamamura KH, Kloosterman EM, Alba J, Garcia F, Williams PL, Mitran RD, et al. Analysis of charges and complications of permanent pacemaker implantation in the cardiac catheterization laboratory versus the operating room [comment]. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1999;22:1820-4.
26. Stamato NJ, O'Toole MF, Enger EL. Permanent pacemaker implantation in the cardiac catheterization laboratory versus the operating room: an analysis of hospital charges and complications. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1992; 15:2236-9.
27. Tobin K, Stewart J, Westveer D, Frumin H. Acute complications of permanent pacemaker implantation: their financial implication and relation to volume and operator experience. Am J Cardiol 2000;85:774-6.
28. Ferguson TB Jr, Ferguson CL, Crites K, Crimmins-Reda P. The additional hospital costs generated in the management of complications of pacemaker and defibrillator implantations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;111:742-51.
29. Link MS, Estes NA III, Griffin JJ, Wang PJ, Maloney JD, Kirchhoffer JB, et al. Complications of dual chamber pacemaker implantation in the elderly. Pacemaker Selection in the Elderly (PASE) Investigators. J Interv Card Electrophysiol 1998; 2:175-9.
30. Ausubel K, Furman S. The pacemaker syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:420-9.
31. Torresani J, Ebagosti A, Allard-Latour G. Pacemaker syndrome with DDD pacing. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1984;7:1148-51.
32. Frielingsdorf J, Gerber AE, Hess OM. Importance of maintained atrio-ventricular synchrony in patients with pacemakers [review]. Eur Heart J 1994;15:1431-40.
33. Ross RA, Kenny RA. Pacemaker syndrome in older people. Age Ageing 2000;29:13-15.
34. Heldman D, Mulvihill D, Nguyen H, Messenger JC, Rylaarsdam A, Evans K, et al. True incidence of pacemaker syndrome. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1990;13:t-50.
35. Lamas GA, Orav EJ, Stambler BS, Ellenbogen KA, Sgarbossa EB, Huang SK, et al. Quality of life and clinical outcomes in elderly patients treated with ventricular pacing as compared with dual-chamber pacing. Pacemaker Selection in the Elderly Investigators [comment]. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:1097-104.
36. Camm AJ, Fei L. Chronotropic incompetence - Part II: Clinical implications. Clin Cardiol 1996; 19:503-8.
37. Khan KS, ter Riet G, Glanville J, Sowden A, Kleijnen J. Undertaking systematic reviews of research on effectiveness. Report No. 4. York: Centre for Review and Dissemination; 2001.
38. Soares HP, Daniels S, Kumar A, Clarke M, Scott C, Swann S, et al. Bad reporting does not mean bad methods for randomised trials: observational study of randomised controlled trials performed by the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. BMJ 2004; 328:22-4.
39. Moher D, Cook DJ, Eastwood S, Olkin I, Rennie D, Stroup DF. Improving the quality of reports of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials: the QUOROM statement. Quality of reporting of meta-analyses. Lancet 1999;354:1896-900.
40. Sculpher M, Fenwick E, Claxton K. Assessing quality in decision analytic cost-effectiveness models - a suggested framework and example of application. Pharmacoeconomics 2000;17:461-77.
41. Drummond ME, Jefferson TO. Guidelines for authors and peer reviewers of economic submissions to the BMJ. The BMJ Economic Evaluation Working Party. BMJ 1996;313:275-83.
42. Higgins J, Thompson S, Decks J, Altman D. Statistical heterogeneity in systematic reviews of clinical trials: a critical appraisal of guidelines and practice. Journal of Health Services Research Policy 2002;7:51-61.
43. Dretzke J, Lip GY, Raftery J, Toff W, Fry Smith A, Taylor R. Dual chamber versus single chamber ventricular pacemakers for sick sinus syndrome and atrioventricular block. Report No. 32. Birmingham: Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, University of Birmingham; 2002.
44. Dretzke J, Toff WD, Lip GY, Raftery J, Fry Smith A, Taylor, R. Dual versus single chamber ventricular pacemakers in sick sinus syndrome and atrioventricular block. In The Cochrane Library (Issue 4). Chichester: John Wiley; 2003.
45. Toff WD, Camm AJ, Skehan JD, for the UKPACE Investigators. A randomised comparison of the effect of single chamber ventricular pacing and dual chamber pacing on mortality and cardiovascular events in elderly patients with high-grade atrioventricular block. 2004 [not yet published and given in confidence to the NICE Appraisal Committee and to consultees].
46. Mattioli AV, Castellani ET, Vivoli D, Sgura EA, Mattioli G. Prevalence of atrial fibrillation and stroke in paced patients without prior atrial fibrillation: a prospective study. Clin Cardiol 1998; 21:117-22.
47. Wharton JM, Sorrentino RA, Campbell P, Gonzalez-Zuelgaray J, Keating E, Curtis A, et al. Effect of pacing modality on atrial tachyarrhythmia recurrence in the tachycardia-bradycardia syndrome: preliminary results of the pacemaker atrial tachycardia trial. Circulation 1998;98 (Suppl.):2601.
48. Lamas GA, Lee KL, Sweeney MO, Silverman R, Leon A, Yee R, et al. Ventricular pacing or dual-chamber pacing for sinus-node dysfunction [comment]. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1854-62.
49. Hoijer CJ, Brandt J, Willenheimer R, Juul-Moller S, Bostrom PA. Improved cardiac function and quality of life following upgrade to dual chamber pacing after long-term ventricular stimulation [comment]. Eur Heart J 2002;23:490-7.
50. Jordaens L, de Backer G, Clement DL. Physiologic pacing in the elderly. Effects on exercise capacity and exercise-induced arrhythmias. Jpn Heart J 1988;29:35-44.
51. Lamas GA, Lee K, Sweeney M, Leon A, Yee R, Ellenbogen K, et al. The Mode Selection Trial (MOST) in sinus node dysfunction: design, rationale, and baseline characteristics of the first 1000 patients. Am Heart J 2000;140:541-51.
52. Connolly SJ, Kerr CR, Gent M, Roberts RS, Yusuf S, Gillis AM, et al. Effects of physiologic pacing versus ventricular pacing on the risk of stroke and death due to cardiovascular causes. Canadian Trial of Physiologic Pacing Investigators [comment]. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1385-91.
53. Stambler BS, Ellenbogen KA, Orav EJ, Sgarbossa EB, Estes NAM III, Rizo-Patron C, et al. Predictors and clinical impact of atrial fibrillation after pacemaker implantation in elderly patients treated with dual chamber versus ventricular pacing. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2003;26:2000-7.
54. Glotzer TV, Hellkamp AS, Zimmerman J, Sweeney MO, Yee R, Marinchak R, et al. Atrial high rate episodes detected by pacemaker diagnostics predict death and stroke: report of the Atrial Diagnostics Ancillary Study of the MOde Selection Trial (MOST) [comment]. Circulation 2003;107:1614-19.
55. Skanes AC, Krahn AD, Yee R, Klein GJ, Connolly SJ, Kerr CR, et al. CTOPP Investigators. Progression to chronic atrial fibrillation after pacing: the Canadian Trial of Physiologic Pacing. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:167-72.
56. Sweeney MO, Hellkamp AS, Ellenbogen KA, Greenspon AJ, Freedman RA, Lee KL, et al. Adverse effect of ventricular pacing on heart failure and atrial fibrillation among patients with normal baseline QRS duration in a clinical trial of pacemaker therapy for sinus node dysfunction. Circulation 2003;107:2932-7.
57. Tang AS, Roberts RS, Kerr C, Gillis AM, Green MS, Talajic M, et al. Relationship between pacemaker dependency and the effect of pacing mode on cardiovascular outcomes. Circulation 2001;103:3081-5.
58. Avery P, Banning A, Lawson T, McGurk L, Buchalter M. Physiological pacing improves symptoms and increases exercise capacity in the elderly patient. Int J Cardiol 1994;46:129-33.
59. Capucci A, Cazzin R, Zardo F, Boriani G, Zanuttini D, Piccolo E. DDDR versus DDD and VVIR pacing: a single blind randomised evaluation of symptoms and effort performance. European Journal of Cardiac Pacing and Electrophysiology 1993;3:205-11.
60. Channon KM, Hargreaves MR, Cripps TR, Gardner M, Ormerod OJ. DDD vs. VVI pacing in patients aged over 75 years with complete heart block: a double-blind crossover comparison. QJM 1994;87:245-51.
61. Davis MJE, Mundin HA, Mews GC, Cope GD. Functional benefits of physiologic compared to ventricular pacing in complete heart block. Clinical Progress in Electrophysiology and Pacing 1985; 3:457-60.
62. Deharo JC, Badier M, Thirion X, Ritter P, Provenier F, Graux P, et al. A randomized, single-blind crossover comparison of the effects of chronic DDD and dual sensor VVIR pacing mode on quality-of-life and cardiopulmonary performance in complete heart block. Pacing and Clin Electrophysiol 1996;19:1320-6.
63. Hargreaves MR, Channon KM, Cripps TR, Gardner M, Ormerod OJ. Comparison of dual chamber and ventricular rate responsive pacing in patients over 75 with complete heart block. British Heart Journal 1995;74:397-402.
64. Kamalvand K, Tan K, Kotsakis A, Bucknall C, Sulke N. Is mode switching beneficial? A randomized study in patients with paroxysmal atrial tachyarrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30:496-504.
65. Kenny RA, Ingram A, Mitsuoka T, Walsh K, Sutton R. Optimum pacing mode for patients with angina pectoris. British Heart Journal 1986; 56:463-8.
66. Kristensson BE, Arnman K, Smedgard P, Ryden L. Physiological versus single-rate ventricular pacing: a double-blind cross-over study. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1985;8:73-84.
67. Linde-Edelstam C, Nordlander R, Pehrsson SK, Ryden L. A double-blind study of submaximal exercise tolerance and variation in paced rate in atrial synchronous compared to activity sensor modulated ventricular pacing. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1992;15:905-15.
68. Menozzi C, Brignole M, Moracchini PV, Lolli G, Bacchi M, Tesorieri MC, et al. Intrapatient comparison between chronic VVIR and DDD pacing in patients affected by high degree AV block without heart failure. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1990;13:t-22.
69. Mitsuoka T, Kenny RA, Yeung TA, Chan SL, Perrins JE, Sutton R. Benefits of dual chamber pacing in sick sinus syndrome. British Heart Journal 1988;60:338-47.
70. Oldroyd KG, Rae AP, Carter R, Wingate C, Cobbe SM. Double blind crossover comparison of the effects of dual chamber pacing (DDD) and ventricular rate adaptive (VVIR) pacing on neuroendocrine variables, exercise performance, and symptoms in complete heart block. British Heart Journal 1991;65:188-93.
71. Perrins EJ, Morley CA, Chan SL, Sutton R. Randomised controlled trial of physiological and ventricular pacing. British Heart Journal 1983; 50:112-17.
72. Rediker DE, Eagle KA, Homma S, Gillam LD, Harthorne JW. Clinical and hemodynamic comparison of VVI versus DDD pacing in patients with DDD pacemakers. Am J Cardiol 1988; 61:323-9.
73. Saner H, Fricker U. Haemodynamic benefits and quality of life with DDD versus VVIR pacing: evaluation by exercise Doppler echocardiography and quality-of-life-score. European Journal of Cardiac Pacing and Electrophysiology 1996;6:125-31.
74. Sulke N, Chambers J, Dritsas A, Sowton E. A randomized double-blind crossover comparison of four rate-responsive pacing modes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991;17:696-706.
75. Sulke N, Dritsas A, Bostock J, Wells A, Morris R, Sowton E. 'Subclinical' pacemaker syndrome: a randomised study of symptom free patients with ventricular demand (VVI) pacemakers upgraded to dual chamber devices. British Heart Journal 1992; 67:57-64.
76. Sulke N, Chambers J, Sowton E. Variability of left atrial bloodflow predicts intolerance of ventricular demand pacing and may cause pacemaker syndrome. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1994; 17:1149-59.
77. Yee R, Benditt DG, Kostuk WJ, Ko PT, Purves P, Klein GJ. Comparative functional effects of chronic ventricular demand and atrial synchronous ventricular inhibited pacing. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1984;7:23-8.
78. Lau CP, Tai YT, Leung WH, Wong CK, Lee P, Chung FL. Rate adaptive pacing in sick sinus syndrome: effects of pacing modes and intrinsic conduction on physiological responses, arrhythmias, symptomatology and quality of life. Eur Heart J 1994;15:1445-55.
79. Lau CP, Tai YT, Lee PW, Cheung B, Tang MO, Lam WK. Quality-of-life in DDDR pacing: atrioventricular synchrony or rate adaptation? Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1994;17:t-43.
80. Newman D, Lau C, Tang AS, Irvine J, Paquette M, Woodend K, et al. Effect of pacing mode on health-related quality of life in the Canadian Trial of Physiologic Pacing. Am Heart J 2003;145:430-7.
81. Boon NA, Frew AJ, Johnston JA, Cobbe SM. A comparison of symptoms and intra-arterial ambulatory blood pressure during long term dual chamber atrioventricular synchronous (DDD) and ventricular demand (VVI) pacing. British Heart Journal 1987;58:34-9.
82. Linde-Edelstam C, Nordlander R, Unden AL, Orth-Gomer K, Ryden L. Quality-of-life in patients treated with atrioventricular synchronous pacing compared to rate modulated ventricular pacing: a long-term, double-blind, crossover study. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1992;15:1467-76.
83. Lukl J, Doupal V, Heinc P. Quality-of-life during DDD and dual sensor VVIR pacing. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1994;17:t-8.
84. Ellenbogen KA, Hellkamp AS, Wilkoff BL, Camunãs JL, Love JC, Hadjis TA, et al. Complications arising after implantation of DDD pacemakers: the MOST experience. Am J Cardiol 2003;92:740-1.
85. Greenspon AJ, Hart RG, Dawson D, Hellkamp AS, Silver M, Flaker GC, et al. Predictors of stroke in patients paced for sick sinus syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1617-22.
86. Oxman A, Guyatt G. Summarizing the evidence. In Guyatt G, Rennie D, editors. Users' guide to the medical literature. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association Press; 2002. pp. 553-65.
87. Senn S. Cross-over trials in clinical research. Chichester: John Wiley; 2002.
88. Pocock SJ. Clinical trials: a practical approach. Chichester: John Wiley; 1983.
89. Kerr CR, Connolly SJ, Abdollah H, Roberts RS, Gent M, Yusuf S, et al. Canadian Trial of Physiological Pacing: effects of physiological pacing during long-term follow-up. Circulation 2004;109:357-62.
90. Goldman L, Hashimoto B, Cook EF, Loscalzo A. Comparative reproducibility and validity of systems for assessing cardiovascular functional class: advantages of a new specific activity scale. Circulation 1981;64:1227-34.
91. Nielsen JC, Kristensen L, Andersen HR, Mortensen PT, Pedersen OL, Pedersen AK. A randomized comparison of atrial and dual-chamber pacing in 177 consecutive patients with sick sinus syndrome: echocardiographic and clinical outcome [comment]. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:614-23.
92. Schwaab B, Kindermann M, Schatzer-Klotz D, Berg M, Franow H, Frohlig G, et al. AAIR versus DDDR pacing in the bradycardia tachycardia syndrome: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001;24:1585-95.
93. Andersen HR, Svendsen JH. The Danish multicenter randomized study on atrial inhibited versus dual-chamber pacing in sick sinus syndrome (the DANPACE study): purpose and design of the study. Heart Drug 2001;1:67-70.
94. Mahoney CB. Pacing modes and patient outcomes: the economic benefit of atrial-based pacing. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:x-xi.
95. Hughes A. Identifying incremental costs for successive generations of implantable cardiac pacemakers. SPIE Healthcare Technology Policy I 1994;2307:94-107.
96. Eagle KA, Mulley AG, Singer DE, Schoenfeld D, Harthorne JW, Thibault GE. Single-chamber and dual-chamber cardiac pacemakers. A formal cost comparison. Ann Intern Med 1986;105:264-71.
97. Brown Mahoney C. Pacing and outcomes: economic considerations. In Geisler E, Heller O, editors. Managing technology in healthcare. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1996. pp. 69-102.
98. Sutton R, Bourgeois I. Cost benefit analysis of single and dual chamber pacing for sick sinus syndrome and atrioventricular block: an economic sensitivity analysis of the literature. Eur Heart J 1996;17:574-82.
99. Lopez-Jimenez F, Goldman L, Orav EJ, Ellenbogen K, Stambler B, Marinchak R, et al. Health values before and after pacemaker implantation. Am Heart J 2002;144:687-92.
100. Catalogue of preference scores. URL: http://www.hcra.harvard.edu/pdf/preferencescores.pdf. Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, Harvard School of Public Health; 2004.
101. NHS Executive. The new NHS reference costs. Leeds: NHS Executive; 2002.
102. Owens DK, Sanders GD, Harris RA, McDonald KM, Heidenreich PA, Dembitzer AD, et al. Cost-effectiveness of implantable cardioverter defibrillators relative to amiodarone for prevention of sudden cardiac death. Ann Intern Med 1997;126:1-12.
103. Majeed A, Moser K, Carroll K. Trends in the prevalence and management of atrial fibrillation in general practice in England and Wales, 1994-1998: analysis of data from the general practice research database. Heart 2001;86:284-8.
104. Wyse DG, Waldo AL, DiMarco JP, Domanski MJ, Rosenberg Y. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2002;23:1825-33.
105. Steinberg JS, Sadaniantz A, Kron J, Krahn A, Denny DM, Daubert J, et al. Analysis of cause-specific mortality in the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) study. Circulation 2004;109:1973-80.
106. Cooper HA, Bloomfield DA, Bush DE, Katcher MS, Rawlins M, Sacco JD, et al. Relation between achieved heart rate and outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation (from the Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management [AFFIRM] Study). Am J Cardiol 2004;93:1247-53.
107. Stewart FM, Singh Y, Persson S, Gamble GD, Braatvedt GD. Atrial fibrillation: prevalence and management in an acute general medical unit. Aust N Z J Med 1999;29:51-8.
108. Hogenhuis W, Stevens SK, Wang P, Wong JB, Manolis AS, Estes NA III, et al. Cost-effectiveness of radiofrequency ablation compared with other strategies in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Circulation 1993;88:II-437-46.
109. Wang TJ, Larson MG, Levy D, Vasan RS, Leip EP, Wolf PA, et al. Temporal relations of atrial fibrillation and congestive heart failure and their joint influence on mortality: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2003;107:2920-5.
110. MacIntyre K, Capewell S, Stewart S, Chalmers JW, Boyd J, Finlayson A, et al. Evidence of improving prognosis in heart failure: trends in case fatality in 66 547 patients hospitalized between 1986 and 1995. Circulation 2000;102:1126-31.
111. Kavanagh S, Knapp M, Patel A. Costs and disability among stroke patients. J Public Health Med 1999;21:385-94.
112. Netten A, Curtis L. Unit costs of health and social care 2003. University of Kent: Personal Social Services Research Unit; 2003.
113. Office for National Statistics. Consumer Prices Index (CPI) 1988-2004. Monthly, First/News/Press Release, online edition. London: ONS; 2004.
114. Appelros P, Nydevik I, Viitanen M. Poor outcome after first-ever stroke: predictors for death, dependency, and recurrent stroke within the first year. Stroke 2003;34:122-6.
115. Tengs TO, Yu M, Luistro E. Health-related quality of life after stroke: a comprehensive review. Stroke 2001;32:964-72.
116. Tengs TO, Lin TH. A meta-analysis of quality-of-life estimates for stroke. Pharmacoeconomics 2003; 21:191-200.
117. Office for National Statistics. Mortality statistics: cause (Series DH2) 2002 (online edition). URL: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/Product.asp?vlnk=618&More=Y 16 December 2002.
118. Royle P, Waugh N. Literature searching for clinical and cost-effectiveness studies used in health technology assessment reports carried out for the National Institute for Clinical Excellence appraisal system. Health Technol Assess 2003;7(34).