Astrocytic tumors, lowgrade: Treatment considerations by primary site and tumor dissemination

Brain and Spinal Tumors of Childhood

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 259-276

  Gnekow, Astrid K ^a   Packer, Roger J ^b   Kortmann, Rolf D ^c  

^a Hospital for Children and Adolescents   (Germany)

^b CHILDREN'S NATIONAL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 29644445942     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (138)

1. Berger M, Deliganis A, Dobbins J, Keles G. The effect of extent of resection on recurrence in patients with low grade cerebral hemispheric gliomas. Cancer 1994; 74:1784-91.
2. Gajjar A, Sanford R, Heideman R, et al. Low-grade astrocytoma: A decade of experience at St Jude Children's Research Hospital. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15:2792-9.
3. Hirsch J-F, Rose C, Pierre-Kah A, Pfister A, Hoppe-Hirsch E. Benign astrocytic and oligodendrocytic tumors of the cerebral hemispheres in children. J Neurosurg 1989; 70:568-72.
4. Pollack I, Claassen D, Al-Shboul Q, Janosky J, Deutsch M. Low-grade gliomas of the cerebral hemispheres in children: An analysis of 71 cases. J Neurosurg 1995; 82:536-47.
5. Wallner K, Gonzales M, Edwards M, Wara W, Sheline G. Treatment results of juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1988; 69:171-6.
6. West C, Gattamaneni R, Blair V. Radiotherapy in the treatment of low grade astrocytomas I. A survival analysis. Childs Nerv Syst 1995; 11:438-42.
7. Dhodapkar K, Wisoff J, Sanford R, Holmes E, Sposto R, Finlay J. Patterns of relapse and survival for newly-diagnosed childhood low grade astrocytoma: Initial results of CCG9891/POG9130. Med Pediatr Oncol 1999; 33:205.
8. Forsyth P, Shaw E, Scheithauer B, O'Fallon J, Layton DJ, Katzman J. Supratentorial pilocytic astrocytomas. A clinicopathologic, prognostic and flow cytometric study of 51 patients. Cancer 1993; 72:1335-42.
9. Kortmann R, Timmermann B, Becker G, Kuehl J, Bamberg M. Advances in treatment techniques and time/dose schedules in external radiation therapy of brain tumors in childhood. Klin Pediatr 1998; 210:220-6.
10. Kortmann R, Becker G, Perelmouter J, Buchgeister M, Meisner C, Bamberg M. Geometric accuracy of field alignment in fractionated stereotactic conformal radiotherapy of brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1999; 43:921-6.
11. Mansur D, Hekmatphanah J, Wollman R, et al. Low grade gliomas treated with adjuvant radiation therapy in the modern imaging era. Am J Clin Oncol 2000; 23:222-6.
12. Jeremic B, Shibamotu Y, Grujicic D, et al. Hyperfractionated radiation therapy for completely resected supratentorial low-grade glioma. A phase II study. Radiother Oncol 1998; 49:49-54.
13. Dunbar S, Tarbell N, Kooy H, etal. Stereotactic radiotherapy for pediatric and adult brain tumors: Preliminary report. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1994; 30:531-9.
14. Grabb P, Lunsford L, Albright A, Kondziolka D, Flickinger J. Stereotactic radiosurgery for glial neoplasms of childhood. Neurosurgery 1996; 38:696-702.
15. Somaza S, Kondziolka D, Lunsford L, Flickinger J, Bissonette D, Albright A. Early outcomes after stereotactic radiosurgery for growing pilocytic astrocytomas in children. Pediatr Neurosurg1996; 25:109-15.
16. Voges J, Sturm V, Berthold F, Pastyr O, Schlegel W, Lorenz W. Interstitial irradiation of cerebral gliomas in childhood by permanently implanted 125-iodine - preliminary results. Klin Pediatr 1990; 2020:270-4.
17. Schaetz C, Kreth F, Faist M, Warnke P, Volk B, Ostertag C. Interstitial 125-iodine radiosurgery of low-grade gliomas of the insula of Reil. Acta Neurochir 1994; 130:80-9.
18. Fisher B, Bauman G, Leighton C, Stitt L, Cairncross J, Macdonald D. Low-grade gliomas in children: Tumor volume response to radiation. J Neurosurg 1998; 88:969-74.
19. Castello M, Schiavetti A, Varrasso G, Clerico A, Capelli C. Chemotherapy in low-grade astrocytoma management. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:6-9.
20. Friedman H, Krischer J, Burger P, et al. Treatment of children with progressive or recurrent brain tumors with carboplatin or iproplatin: A Pediatric Oncology Group randomized phase II study. J Clin Oncol 1992; 10:249-56.
21. Packer R, Lange B, Ater J, et al. Carboplatin and vincristine for progressive low-grade gliomas of childhood. J Clin Oncol 1993; 11:850-7.
22. Packer R, Ater J, Allen J, et al. Carboplatin and vincristine chemotherapy for children with newly diagnosed progressive low-grade gliomas. J Neurosurg 1997; 86:747-54.
23. Pons M, Finlay J, Walker R, Puccetti D, Packer R, McElwain M. Chemotherapy with vincristine and etoposide in children with low-grade astrocytoma. J Neuro-Oncol 1992; 14:151-8.
24. Sumer T, Freeman A, Cohen M, Bremer A, Thomas P, Sinks L. Chemotherapy in recurrent non-cystic low grade astrocytomas of the cerebrum in children. JSurg Oncol 1978; 10:45-54.
25. Brown M, Friedman H, Oakes J, Boyko O, Hockenberger B, Schold S. Chemotherapy for pilocytic astrocytoma. Cancer1993; 71:3165-72.
26. Chang S, Fryberger S, Crouse V, Tilford D, Prados M. Carboplatin hypersensitivity in children. Cancer 1995; 75:1171-5.
27. Strojan P, Petric-Grabnar G, Zupancic N, Jereb B. Concomitant chemo-radiotherapy for incompletely resected supratentorial low-grade astrocytoma in children: Preliminary report. Med Pediatr Oncol 1999; 32:112-16.
28. Eggers H, Jokobiec F, Jones I. Optic nerve gliomas. In: Duane T, Jaeger E (eds). Clinical Ophthalmology. New York: Harper ft Row, 1985, pp. 1-17.
29. Hoyt W, Baghdassarian S. Optic glioma of childhood. Natural history and rationale for conservative management. Br J Ophthalmol 1969; 53:793-8.
30. Listernick R, Darling C, Greenwald M, Strauss L, Charrow J. Optic pathway tumors in children: The effect of neurofibromatosis type 1 on clinical manifestations and natural history. J Pediatr 1995; 127:718-22.
31. Listernick R, Charrow J, Greenwald M, Mets M. Natural history of optic pathway tumors in children with neurofibromatosis type 1: A longitudinal study. J Pediatr 1994; 25:63-6.
32. Sutton L, Molloy P, Sernyak H, et al. Long-term outcome of hypothalamic/chiasmatic astrocytomas in children treated with conservative surgery. J Neurosurg 1995; 83:583-9.
33. Chutorian A, Schwartz J, Evans R, Carter S. Optic gliomas in children. Neurology 1964; 14:83-95.
34. Danoff B, Kramer S, Thompson N. The radiotherapeutic management of optic gliomas of children. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1980; 6:45-50.
35. Wisoff J, Abbott R, Epstein F. Surgical management of exophytic chiasmatic-hypothalamic tumors of childhood. J Neurosurg 1990; 73:661-7.
36. Montgomery A, Griffin T, Parker R, Gerdes A. Optic nerve glioma: The role of radiation therapy. Cancer 1977; 40:2079-80.
37. Rush J, Young B, Campbell R, MacCarthy C. Optic glioma, long-term follow-up of 85 histopathologically verified cases. Ophthalmology 1982; 89:1213-19.
38. Bataini J, Delanian S, Ponvert D. Chiasmal gliomas: Results of irradiation management in 57 patients and review of the literature. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1991; 21:615-23.
39. Kovalic J, Grigsby P, Shepard M, Fineberg B, Thomas P. Radiation therapy for gliomas of the optic nerve and chiasm. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1990; 18:927-32.
40. Jenkin D, Angyalfi S, Becker L, et al. Optic glioma in children: Surveillance, resection or irradiation? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993; 25:215-25.
41. Dutton J. Gliomas of the anterior visual pathway. Surv Ophthalmol 1994; 38:427-52.
42. Packer R, Sutton L, Bilaniuk L, et al. Treatment of chiasmatic/hypothalamic gliomas of childhood with chemotherapy: An update. Ann Neurol 1988; 23:79-85.
43. Prados M, Edwards M, Rabbitt J, Lamborn K, Davis R, Levin V. Treatment of pediatric low-grade gliomas with a nitrosourea-based multiagent chemotherapy regimen. J Neuro-Oncol 1997; 32:235-41.
44. Allen J. Initial management of children with hypothalamic and thalamic tumors and the modifying role of neurofibromatosis-1. Paediatr Neurosurg 2000; 32:154-62.
45. Reardon D, Gajjar A, Sandford R, et al. Bithalamic involvement predicts poor outcome among children with thalamic glial tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg 1998; 29:29-35.
46. Epstein F, McCleary E. Intrinsic brain stem tumors of childhood: Surgical indications. J Neurosurg 1986; 64:11-14.
47. Stroink A, Hoffman J, Hendrick E, Humphreys R, Davidson G. Transependymal benign dorsally exophytic brain stem gliomas in childhood: Diagnosis and treatment recommendations. Neurosurgery 1987; 20:439-44.
48. Edwards M, Wara W, Ciricillo S, Barkovich A. Focal brain stem astrocytomas causing symptoms of involvement of the facial nerve nucleus: Long-term survival in six pediatric cases. J Neurosurg 1994; 80:20-5.
49. Coffey R, Lunsford L. Stereotactic surgery for mass lesions of the mid-brain and pons. Neurosurgery 1985; 17:12-18.
50. Pollack I, Pang D, Albright A. The long term outcome in children with late onset aqueductal stenosis resulting from benign intrinsic tectal tumors. J Neurosurg 1994; 80:20-5.
51. Robertson P, Muraszko K, Brunberg J, Axtell R, Dauser R, Turrisi A. Pediatric mid-brain tumors: A benign sub-group of brain stem gliomas. Paediatr Neurosurg 1995; 22:65-73.
52. Pollack I, Shultz B, Mulvihill J. The management of brain stem gliomas in patients with neurofibromatosis 1. Neurology 1996; 46:1652-60.
53. Milstein J, Geyer J, Berger M, Bleyer W. Favorable prognosis for brain stem gliomas in neurofibromatosis. J Neuro-Oncol1989; 7:367-71.
54. Abdollahzadeh M, Hoffman H, Blazer S, etal. Benign cerebellar astrocytoma in childhood: Experience at the Hospital for Sick Children 1980-1992. Childs NervSyst 1994; 10:380-3.
55. Pollack I. The role of surgery in pediatric gliomas. J Neuro-Oncol 1999; 42:271-88.
56. Rollins N, Shapiro K. The use of early post-operative MR in detecting residual juvenile cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. Am J Neuroradiol 1998; 19:151-6.
57. Dirven C, Mooij J, Molenaar W. Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma: A treatment protocol based upon analysis of 73 cases and review of the literature. Childs Nerv Syst 1997; 13:17-23.
58. Smoots D, Geyer J, Lieberman D, Berger M. Predicting disease progression in childhood cerebellar astrocytoma. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:636-48.
59. Garcia D, Latifi H, Simpson J, Picker S. Astrocytomas of the cerebellum in children. J Neurosurg 1989; 71:661-4.
60. Gjerris F, Klinken L. Long term prognosis in children with benign cerebellar astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1978; 49: 179-84.
61. Griffin T, Beaufait D, Blasko J. Cystic cerebellar astrocytomas in childhood. Cancer 1979; 44:276-80.
62. Hayostek C, Shaw E, Scheithauer B, et al. Astrocytomas of the cerebellum: A comparative clinicopathologic study of pilocytic and diffuse astrocytomas. Cancer 1993; 72:856-69.
63. Garcia D, Marks J, Latifi H, Klieforth A. Childhood cerebellar astrocytomas: Is there a role for post-operative irradiation? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1990; 18:815-18.
64. Pencalet P, Maixner W, Sainte-Rose C, et al. Benign cerebellar astrocytomas in children. J Neurosurg 1999; 90:265-73.
65. Schneider J, Raffel C, McComb J. Benign cerebellar astrocytomas of childhood. Neurosurgery 1992; 30:58-93.
66. Austin E, Alvord E. Recurrences of cerebellar astrocytomas: A violation of Collins' law. J Neurosurg 1988; 68:41-7.
67. Sutton L, Cnaan A, Klatt L, et al. Post-operative surveillance imaging in children with cerebellar astrocytoma. J Neurosurg1996; 84:721-5.
68. Brown W, Tavare C, Sobel E, Gilles F. The applicability of Collin's law to childhood brain tumors and its usefulness as a predictor of survival. Neurosurgery 1995; 36:1093-6.
69. Campbell J, Pollack I. Cerebellar astrocytomas in children. J Neuro-Oncol 1996; 28:223-31.
70. Civitello L, Packer R, Rorke L, Siegel K, Sutton L, Schut L. Leptomeningeal dissemination of low grade gliomas in children. Neurology 1988; 38:562-6.
71. Mamelak A, Prados M, Obana W, Cogan P, Edwards M. Treatment options and prognosis for multicentric juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1994; 81:24-30.
72. Mishima K, Nakamura M, Nakamura H, Nakamura O, Funata N, Shitara N. Leptomeningeal dissemination of cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1992; 77:788-91.
73. Pollack I, Hurtt M, Pang D, Albright A. Dissemination of low grade intracranial astrocytomas in children. Cancer 1994; 73:2869-78.
74. Tamura M, Zama A, Kurihara H, et al. Management of recurrent pilocytic astrocytoma with leptomeningeal dissemination in childhood. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14: 617-22.
75. Ammirati M, Mizai S, Samii M. Transient mutism following removal of a cerebellar tumor. Childs Nerv Syst 1989; 5:12-14.
76. Pollack J, Polinko P, Pang D, Albright A, Towbin R, Fitz C. Mutism and pseudobulbar symptoms after resection of posterior fossa tumors in children: Incidence and pathophysiology. Neurosurgery 1995; 37:885-93.
77. Wisoff J, Epstein F. Pseudobulbar palsy after posterior fossa operation in children. Neurosurgery 1984; 15:707 -9.
78. Undijan S, Marinov M, Georgiev K. Long-term follow-up after surgical treatment of cerebellar astrocytomas in 100 children. Childs Nerv Syst 1989; 5:99-101.
79. Bouffet E, Amat D, Devaux Y, Desuzinges C. Chemotherapy for spinal cord astrocytoma. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997; 29:560-2.
80. Doireau V, Grill J, Zerah M, et al. Chemotherapy for unresectable and recurrent intramedullary glial tumors in children. Brain Tumors Sub-committee of the French Society of Pediatric Oncology (SFOP). B J Cancer 1999; 81:835-40.
81. Epstein F, Epstein N. Surgical treatment of spinal cord astrocytomas of childhood. A series of 19 patients. J Neurosurg 1982; 57:685-9.
82. Epstein F. Spinal cord tumors in children. J Neurosurg 1995; 82:516-17.
83. Minehan K, Shaw E, Scheithauer B, Davis D, Onofrio B. Spinal cord astrocytoma: Pathological and treatment considerations. J Neurosurg 1995; 83:590-5.
84. O'Sullivan C, Jenkin D, Doherty M, Hoffman H, Greenberg M. Spinal cord tumors in children: Long-term results of combined surgical and radiation treatment. J Neurosurg 1994; 81:507-12.
85. Constantini S, Epstein F. Intraspinal tumors in children and infants. In: Youmans J, Becker D, Dunsker C (eds). Neurosurgical Surgery, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Wb Saunders, 1996, pp. 3123-33.
86. Epstein F, Constantini S. Spinal cord tumors of childhood. In: Pang D (ed.). Disorders of the Pediatric Spine. New York: Raven Press, 1995, pp. 55-76.
87. Cohen A, Wisoff J, Allen J, Epstein F. Malignant astrocytomas of the spinal cord. J Neurosurg 1989; 70:50-4.
88. Nishio S, Morioka T, Fujii K, Inamura T, Fukui M. Spinal cord gliomas: Management and outcome with reference to adjuvant therapy. J Clin Neurosci 2000; 7:20-3.
89. Constantini S, Miller D, Allen J, Rorke L, Freed D, Epstein F. Pediatric intramedullary spinal cord tumors: Surgical morbidity and long-term follow-up. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:484.
90. Fort D, Packer R, Kirkpatrick G, Kuttesch JJ, Ater J. Carboplatin and vincristine for pediatric primary spinal cord astrocytomas. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:484.
91. Bouffet E, Pierre-Kahn A, Marchal J, et al. Prognostic factors in pediatric spinal cord astrocytoma. Cancer 1998; 83:2391-9.
92. Constantini S, Miller D, Allen J, Rorke L, Freed D, Epstein F. Radical excision of intramedullary spinal cord tumors: Surgical morbidity and long-term follow-up evaluation in 164 children and young adults. J Neurosurg2000; 93:183-93.
93. Linstadt D, Wara W, Leibel S, Gutin P, Wilson C, Sheline G. Post-operative radiotherapy of primary spinal cord tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1989; 16:1397-403.
94. Przybylski G, Albright A, Martinez A. Spinal cord astrocytomas: Long-term results comparing treatments in children. Childs Nerv Syst 1997; 13:375-82.
95. Hardison H, Packer R, Rorke L, Schut L, Sutton L, Bruce D. Outcome of children with primary intramedullary spinal cord tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 1987; 3:89-92.
96. Jyothirmayi R, Madhavan J, Nair M, Rajan B. Conservative surgery and radiotherapy in the treatment of spinal cord astrocytoma. J Neuro-Oncol 1997; 33:205-11.
97. Bamberg M, Hess C, Kortmann R. Zentralnervensystem. In: Scherer E, Sack H (eds). Strahlentherapie/Radiologische Onkologie, 4th ed. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1998, pp. 763-808.
98. McCunniff A, Liang M. Radiation tolerance of the cervical spinal cord. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1989; 16:675-8.
99. Marcus RJ, Million R. The incidence of myelitis after irradiation of the cervical spinal cord. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1990; 19:3-8.
100. Doireau V, Grill J, Chastagner P, et al. Chemotherapy for intramedullary glial tumors. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:484-5.
101. Lowis S, Pizer B, Coakham H, Nelson R, Bouffet E. Chemotherapy for spinal cord astrocytoma: Can natural history be modified? Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:317-21.
102. Foreman N, Hay T, Handler M. Chemotherapy for spinal cord astrocytoma. Med Pediatr Oncol 1998; 30:311-12.
103. Gajjar A, Bhargava R, Jenkins J, et al. Low-grade astrocytoma with neuroaxis dissemination at diagnosis. J Neurosurg 1995; 83:67-71.
104. Perilongo G, Carollo C, Salviati L, et al. Diencephalic syndrome and disseminated juvenile pilocytic astrocytomas of the hypothalamic-optic chiasm region. Cancer 1997; 80:142-6.
105. Berger M, Baumeister B, Geyer J, Milstein J, Kanev P, LeRoux P. The risks of metastases from shunting in children with primary central nervous system tumors. J Neurosurg 1991; 74:872-7.
106. Trigg M, Swanson J, Letellier M. Metastasis of an optic glioma through a ventricular peritoneal shunt. Cancer 1983; 52:599-601.
107. Russell D, Rubinstein L. Pathology ofTumors of the Nervous System. Baltimore: Williams ft Wilkins, 1989.
108. Braun-Fischer A, Romeike B, Eymann R, Glas B, Riesinger P, Reiche W. Pilozytisches astrocytom mit subarachnoidaler dissemination. Radiologe 1997; 37:899-904.
109. Lesage F, Grill J, Cinalli G, Lellouch-Tubiana A, Cuanet, C, Kalifa C. Metastatic low-grade glioma in 16 children: Presentation, treatment and outcome. Childs Nerv Syst 1998; 14:483.
110. McCowage G, Tien R, McLendon R, et al. Successful treatment of childhood pilocytic astrocytomas metastatic to the leptomeninges with high-dose cyclophosphamide. Med Pediatr Oncol 1996; 27:32-9.
111. Akar Z, Tanriover N, Kafadar A, Gazioglu N, Oz B, Kuday C. Chiasmatic low-grade glioma presenting with sacral intradural spinal metastases. Childs Nerv Syst 2000; 16:309-11.
112. Berger M. The impact of technical adjuncts in the surgical management of cerebral hemispheric low-grade gliomas of childhood. J Neuro-Oncol 1996; 28:129-55.
113. Tihan T, Fisher P, Kepner J, et al. Pediatric astrocytomas with monomorphous pilomyxoid features and a less favourable outcome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1999; 58:1061-8.
114. Grill J, Laithier V, Rodriguez D, Raquin M, Pierre-Kahn A, Kalifa C. When do children with optic pathway tumors need treatment? An oncological perspective in 106 patients treated in a single centre. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159:692-6.
115. Friedman J, Birch P. An association between optic glioma and other tumors of the central nervous system in neurofibromatosis type I. Neuropediatrics 1997; 28:131-2.
116. Grill J, Couanet D, Capelli C, et al. Radiation induced cerebral vasculopathy in children with neurofibromatosis and optic pathway glioma. Ann Neurol 1999; 45:393-6.
117. Laithier V, Raquin M, Couanet D, et al. Chemotherapy for children with optic pathway glioma: Results of a prospective study by the French Society of Pediatric Oncology (SFOP). Med Pediatr Oncol 2000; 35:190.
118. Wolff J, Egeler R. Investigational approaches to the treatment of brain tumors in children. Med Pediatr Oncol1999; 32:135-8.
119. Reddy A, Packer R. Chemotherapy for low grade gliomas.Childs NervSyst 1999; 15:506-13.
120. Packer R. An overview of pediatric oncology as a model for interdisciplinary care. Childs Nerv Syst 1995; 11:13-16.
121. Taveras J, Lester A, Wood E. The value of radiation therapy in the management of glioma of the optic nerves and chiasma. Radiology 1956; 66:518-28.
122. Dosoretz D, Blitzer P, Wang C, Linggood R. Management of glioma of the optic nerve and/or chiasm: An analysis of 20 cases. Cancer 1980; 45:1467-71.
123. Kalifa C, Ernest C, Rodary C, et al. Optic glioma in children. A retrospective study of 57 cases treated by irradiation (authors' translation). Arch Fr Pediatr 1981; 38:309-13.
124. Horwich A, Bloom H. Optic gliomas: Radiation therapy and prognosis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1985; 11:1067-79.
125. Weiss L, Sagerman R, King G, Chung C, Dubowy R. Controversy in the management of optic nerve glioma. Cancer 1987; 59:1000-4.
126. Flickinger J, Torres C, Deutsch M. Management of low grade gliomas of the optic nerve and chiasm. Cancer 1988; 61:635-42.
127. Wong J, Uhl V, Wara W, Sheline G. Optic gliomas. A re-analysis of the University of California, San Francisco, experience. Cancer 1987; 60:1847-55.
128. Pierce S, Barnes P, Loeffler J, McGinn C, Tarbell N. Definitive radiation therapy in the management of symptomatic patients with optic glioma. Cancer 1990; 65:45-52.
129. Rodriguez L, Edwards M, Levin V. Management of hypothalamic gliomas in children: An analysis of 33 cases. Neurosurgery 1990; 26:242-6.
130. Erkal H, Serin M, Cakmak A. Management of optic pathway and chiasmatic-hypothalamic gliomas in children: Tumor volume response to radiation therapy. Radiother Oncol1997; 45:11-15.
131. Grabenbauer G, Schuchardt U, Buchfelder M, et al. Radiation therapy of optico-hypothalamic gliomas (OHG) - radiographic response, vision and toxicity. Radiother Oncol 2000; 54:239-45.
132. Harris J, Levene M. Visual complications following irradiation for pituitary adenomas and craniopharyngiomas. Radiology1976; 120:167-71.
133. Aristizabal S, Caldwell W, Avila J. The relationship of time-dose fractionation factors to complications in the treatment of pituitary tumors by irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1977; 10:667-73.
134. Atkinson A, Allen I, Gordon D, et al. Progressive visual failure in acromegaly following external pituitary irradiation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1979; 10:469-79.
135. Kocks W, Kalff R, Reinhardt V, Grote W, Hilke J. Spinal metastasis of pilocytic astrocytoma of the chiasma opticum. Childs Nerv Syst 1989; 5:118-20.
136. Obana W, Cogan P, Davis R, Edwards M. Metastatic juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:972-5.
137. Rutka J, George R, Davidson G, Hoffmann H. Low-grade astrocytoma of the tectal region as an unusual cause of knee pain: Case report. Neurosurgery 1991; 29:608-12.
138. McCowage G, Longee D, Fuchs H, Friedman H. Treatment of high-grade gliomas and metastatic pilocytic astrocytomas with high-dose cyclophosphamide. Annual Meeting of the American Society of Clinical Oncologists 1995; A290.