Autoimmune disease in pregnancy: Systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome

Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 345-372

  Warren, Jennifer B ^a   Silver, Robert M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; BETAMETHASONE; CALCIUM; CARDIOLIPIN ANTIBODY; CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; COUMARIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN; CYTOTOXIC AGENT; DEXAMETHASONE; ESTROGEN; GLUCOCORTICOID; HEPARIN; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; LUPUS ANTICOAGULANT; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; VITAMIN D;

ADRENAL SUPPRESSION; AMINOPTERIN SYNDROME; ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS; ANTICOAGULATION; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AVASCULAR NECROSIS; BLEEDING; CATARACT; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLEFT PALATE; COUNSELING; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EAR INJURY; EYE INJURY; FETUS DEATH; FETUS OUTCOME; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; INCIDENCE; INFECTION; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; KIDNEY DISEASE; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; MATERNAL AGE; MATERNAL CARE; MORBIDITY; NEWBORN LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; OBSTETRIC CARE; OSTEOPENIA; PATHOGENESIS; PLASMAPHERESIS; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PREMATURE FETUS MEMBRANE RUPTURE; PREMATURE LABOR; PREMATURITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SKELETON MALFORMATION; SODIUM RETENTION; SUPPLEMENTATION; SYNDROME; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; TERATOGENESIS; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; THROMBOSIS; WATER RETENTION; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; FEMALE; HUMANS; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; PRENATAL CARE;

EID: 2942557232     PISSN: 08898545     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ogc.2004.03.007     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Beeson PB. Age and sex associations of 40 autoimmune diseases. Am J Med 1994;96:457-62.
2. Ansar Ahmed S, Dauphinee MJ, Talal N. Effects of short-term administration of sex hormones on normal and autoimmune mice. J Immunol 1985;134:204-10.
3. Roubinian JR, Papoian R, Talal N. Androgenic hormones modulate autoantibody responses and improve survival in murine lupus. J Clin Invest 1977;59:1066-70.
4. Roubinian JR, Talal N, Greenspan JS, Goodman JR, Siiteri PK. Effect of castration and sex hormone treatment on survival, anti-nucleic acid antibodies, and glomerulonephritis in NZB/NZW F1 mice. J Exp Med 1978;147:1568-83.
5. Ansar Ahmed S, Young PR, Penhale WJ. Beneficial effect of testosterone in the treatment of chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in rats. J Immunol 1986;136:143-7.
6. Allen JB, Blatter D, Calandra GB, Wilder RL. Sex hormonal effects on the severity of streptococcal cell wall-induced polyarthritis in the rat. Arthritis Rheum 1983;26:560-3.
7. Ariga H, Edwards J, Sullivan DA. Androgen control of autoimmune expression in lacrimal glands of MRL/Mp-lpr/lpr mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1989;53:499-508.
8. Blank M, Mendlovic S, Fricke H, Mozes E, Talal N, Shoenfeld Y. Sex hormone involvement in the induction of experimental systemic lupus erythematosus by a pathogenic anti-DNA idiotype in naive mice. J Rheumatol 1990;17:311-7.
9. Jungers P, Dougados M, Pelissier C, Kuttenn F, Tron F, Lesavre P. Influence of oral contraceptive therapy on the activity of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1982;25:618-23.
10. Lahita RG, Bradlow HL, Fishman J, Kunkel HG. Abnormal estrogen and androgen metabolism in the human with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Kidney Dis 1982;2:206-11.
11. Mackworth-Young CG, Parke AL, Morley KD, Fotherby K, Hughes GR. Sex hormones in male patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a comparison with other disease groups. Eur J Rheumatol Inflamm 1983;6:228-32.
12. Stern R, Fishman J, Brusman H, Kunkel HG. Systemic lupus erythematosus associated with klinefelter's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum 1977;20:18-22.
13. Wegmann TG, Lin H, Guilbert L, Mosmann TR. Bidirectional cytokine interactions in the maternal-fetal relationship: is successful pregnancy a TH2 phenomenon? Immunol Today 1993;14:353-6.
14. Luster MI, Hayes HT, Korach K, Tucker AN, Dean JH, Greenlee WF, et al. Estrogen immunosuppression is regulated through estrogenic responses in the thymus. J Immunol 1984;133:110-6.
15. Purtilo DT, Sullivan JL. Immunological bases for superior survival of females. Am J Dis Child 1979;133:1251-3.
16. Lin H, Mosmann TR, Guilbert L, Tuntipopipat S, Wegmann TG. Synthesis of T helper 2-type cytokines at the maternal-fetal interface. J Immunol 1993;151:4562-73.
17. Kotzin BL. Systemic lupus erythematosus. Cell 1996;85:303-6.
18. Petri M, Howard D, Repke J. Frequency of lupus flare in pregnancy. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center experience. Arthritis Rheum 1991;34:1538-45.
19. Hayslett JP, Lynn RI. Effect of pregnancy in patients with lupus nephropathy. Kidney Int 1980;18:207-20.
20. Tan EM, Cohen AS, Fries JF, Masi AT, McShane DJ, Rothfield NF, et al. The 1982 revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1982;25:1271-7.
21. Ahlenius I, Floberg J, Thomassen P. Sixty-six cases of intrauterine fetal death. A prospective study with an extensive test protocol. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1995;74:109-17.
22. Devoe LD, Taylor RL. Systemic lupus erythematosus in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:473-9.
23. Garsenstein M, Pollak VE, Kark RM. Systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1962;267:165-9.
24. Gimovsky ML, Montoro M, Paul RH. Pregnancy outcome in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:686-92.
25. Mund A, Simson J, Rothfield N. Effect of pregnancy on course of systemic lupus erythematosus. JAMA 1963;183:917-20.
26. Zulman JI, Talal N, Hoffman GS, Epstein WV. Problems associated with the management of pregnancies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1980;7:37-49.
27. Branch DW, Silver R, Pierangeli S, van Leeuwen I, Harris EN. Antiphospholipid antibodies other than lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in women with recurrent pregnancy loss, fertile controls, and antiphospholipid syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:549-55.
28. Lockshin MD. Pregnancy does not cause systemic lupus erythematosus to worsen. Arthritis Rheum 1989;32:665-70.
29. Urowitz MB, Gladman DD, Farewell VT, Stewart J, McDonald J. Lupus and pregnancy studies. Arthritis Rheum 1993;36:1392-7.
30. Nossent HC, Swaak TJ. Systemic lupus erythematosus. VI. Analysis of the interrelationship with pregnancy. J Rheumatol 1990;17:771-6.
31. Ruiz-Irastorza G, Lima F, Alves J, Khamashta MA, Simpson J, Hughes GR, et al. Increased rate of lupus flare during pregnancy and the puerperium: a prospective study of 78 pregnancies. Br J Rheumatol 1996;35:133-8.
32. Wong KL, Chan FY, Lee CP. Outcome of pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. A prospective study. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:269-73.
33. Lockshin MD. Does lupus flare during pregnancy? Lupus 1993;2:1-2.
34. Lockshin MD, Reinitz E, Druzin ML, Murrman M, Estes D. Lupus pregnancy. Case-control prospective study demonstrating absence of lupus exacerbation during or after pregnancy. Am J Med 1984;77:893-8.
35. Meehan RT, Dorsey JK. Pregnancy among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus receiving immunosuppressive therapy. J Rheumatol 1987;14:252-8.
36. Bobrie G, Liote F, Houillier P, Grunfeld JP, Jungers P. Pregnancy in lupus nephritis and related disorders. Am J Kidney Dis 1987;9:339-43.
37. Jungers P, Dougados M, Pelissier C, Kuttenn F, Tron F, Lesavre P, et al. Lupus nephropathy and pregnancy. Report of 104 cases in 36 patients. Arch Intern Med 1982;142:771-6.
38. Bear RA. Pregnancy in patients with renal disease. A study of 44 cases. Obstet Gynecol 1976;48:13-8.
39. Burkett G. Lupus nephropathy and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1985;28:310-23.
40. Fine LG, Barnett EV, Danovitch GM, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in pregnancy. Ann Intern Med 1981;94:667-77.
41. Imbasciati E, Surian M, Bottino S, Cosci P, Colussi G, Ambroso GC, et al. Lupus nephropathy and pregnancy. A study of 26 pregnancies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and nephritis. Nephron 1984;36:46-51.
42. Julkunen H, Kaaja R, Palosuo T, Gronhagen-Riska C, Teramo K. Pregnancy in lupus nephropathy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993;72:258-63.
43. Packham DK, Lam SS, Nicholls K, Fairley KF, Kincaid-Smith PS. Lupus nephritis and pregnancy. Q J Med 1992;83:315-24.
44. Katz AI, Lindheimer MD. Does pregnancy aggravate primary glomerular disease? Am J Kidney Dis 1985;6:261-5.
45. Lockshin MD. Lupus pregnancies and neonatal lupus. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1994;16:247-59.
46. Schur PH. Clinical features of SLE. In: Kelly WN, Rudy HE, et al, editors. Textbook of rheumatology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1989. p. 1101-29.
47. Krane NK, Thakur V, Wood H, Meleg-Smith S. Evaluation of lupus nephritis during pregnancy by renal biopsy. Am J Nephrol 1995;15:186-91.
48. Fraga A, Mintz G, Orozco J, et al. Sterility and fertility rates, fetal wastage and maternal morbidity in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1974;1:293-8.
49. Gardlund B. The lupus inhibitor in thromboembolic disease and intrauterine death in the absence of systemic lupus. Acta Med Scand 1984;215:293-8.
50. McHugh NJ, Reilly PA, McHugh LA. Pregnancy outcome and autoantibodies in connective tissue disease. J Rheumatol 1989;16:42-6.
51. Asherson RA, Khamashta MA, Ordi-Ros J, Derksen RH, Machin SJ, Barquinero J, et al. The "primary" antiphospholipid syndrome: major clinical and serological features. Medicine (Baltimore) 1989;68:366-74.
52. Siamopoulou-Mavridou A, Manoussakis MN, Mavridis AK, Moutsopoulos HM. Outcome of pregnancy in patients with autoimmune rheumatic disease before the disease onset. Ann Rheum Dis 1988;47:982-7.
53. Petri M, Allbritton J. Fetal outcome of lupus pregnancy: a retrospective case-control study of the Hopkins Lupus Cohort. J Rheumatol 1993;20:650-6.
54. Deng JS, Bair Jr LW, Shen-Schwarz S, Ramsey-Goldman R, Medsger Jr T. Localization of Ro (SS-A) antigen in the cardiac conduction system. Arthritis Rheum 1987;30:1232-8.
55. Derksen RH, Bruinse HW, de Groot PG, Kater L. Pregnancy in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study. Lupus 1994;3:149-55.
56. Huong DLT, Weschsler B, Piette JC. Pregnancy and its outcome in systemic lupus erythematosus. Q J Med 1994;87:721-9.
57. Lima F, Buchanan NM, Khamashta MA, Kerslake S, Hughes GR. Obstetric outcome in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1995;25:184-92.
58. Englert HJ, Derue GM, Loizou S, Hawkins DF, Elder MG, De Swiet M, et al. Pregnancy and lupus: prognostic indicators and response to treatment. Q J Med 1988;66:125-36.
59. Varner MW, Meehan RT, Syrop CH, Strottmann MP, Goplerud CP. Pregnancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:1025-40.
60. Mintz G, Niz J, Gutierrez G, Garcia-Alonso A, Karchmer S. Prospective study of pregnancy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Results of a multidisciplinary approach. J Rheumatol 1986;13:732-9.
61. Cariou R, Tobelem G, Bellucci S, Soria J, Soria C, Maclouf J, et al. Effect of lupus anticoagulant on antithrombogenic properties of endothelial cells-inhibition of thrombomodulin-dependent protein C activation. Thromb Haemost 1988;60:54-8.
62. Caruso A, De Carolis S, Ferrazzani S, Valesini G, Caforio L, Mancuso S. Pregnancy outcome in relation to uterine artery flow velocity waveforms and clinical characteristics in women with antiphospholipid syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:970-7.
63. Exner T, Sahman N, Trudinger B. Separation of anticardiolipin antibodies from lupus anticoagulant on a phospholipid-coated polystyrene column. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1988;155:1001-7.
64. Ferro D, Quintarelli C, Rasura M, Antonini G, Violi F. Lupus anticoagulant and the fibrinolytic system in young patients with stroke. Stroke 1993;24:368-70.
65. Gatenby PA, Cameron K, Shearman RP. Pregnancy loss with phospholipid antibodies: improved outcome with aspirin containing treatment. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1989;29:294-8.
66. Johnson MJ, Petri M, Witter FR, Repke JT. Evaluation of preterm delivery in a systemic lupus erythematosus pregnancy clinic. Obstet Gynecol 1995;86:396-9.
67. Branch DW, Silver RM, Blackwell JL, Reading JC, Scott JR. Outcome of treated pregnancies in women with antiphospholipid syndrome: an update of the Utah experience. Obstet Gynecol 1992;80:614-20.
68. Petri M, Howard D, Repke J, Goldman DW. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center: 1987-1991 update. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992;28:188-91.
69. Lee LA. Neonatal lupus erythematosus. J Invest Dermatol 1993;100:9S-13S.
70. McCune AB, Weston WL, Lee LA. Maternal and fetal outcome in neonatal lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:518-23.
71. Scott JS, Maddison PJ, Taylor PV, Esscher E, Scott O, Skinner RP. Connective-tissue disease, antibodies to ribonucleoprotein, and congenital heart block. N Engl J Med 1983;309:209-12.
72. Watson RM, Lane AT, Barnett NK, Bias WB, Arnett FC, Provost TT. Neonatal lupus erythematosus. A clinical, serological and immunogenetic study with review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1984;63:362-78.
73. Press J, Uziel Y, Laxer RM, Luy L, Hamilton RM, Silverman ED. Long-term outcome of mothers of children with complete congenital heart block. Am J Med 1996;100:328-32.
74. Lockshin MD, Bonfa E, Elkon K, Druzin ML. Neonatal lupus risk to newborns of mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1988;31:697-701.
75. Tseng CE, Buyon JP. Neonatal lupus syndromes. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1997;23:31-54.
76. Waltuck J, Buyon JP. Autoantibody-associated congenital heart block: outcome in mothers and children. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:544-51.
77. Buyon JP, Swersky SH, Fox HE, Bierman FZ, Winchester RJ. Intrauterine therapy for presumptive fetal myocarditis with acquired heart block due to systemic lupus erythematosus. Experience in a mother with a predominance of SS-B (La) antibodies. Arthritis Rheum 1987;30:44-9.
78. Ho SY, Esscher E, Anderson RH, Michaelsson M. Anatomy of congenital complete heart block and relation to maternal anti-Ro antibodies. Am J Cardiol 1986;58:291-4.
79. Chameides L, Truex RC, Vetter V, Rashkind WJ, Galioto Jr FM, Noonan JA. Association of maternal systemic lupus erythematosus with congenital complete heart block. N Engl J Med 1977;297:1204-7.
80. Hull D, Binns BA, Joyce D. Congenital heart block and widespread fibrosis due to maternal lupus erythematosus. Arch Dis Child 1966;41:688-90.
81. Bierman FZ, Baxi L, Jaffe I, Driscoll J. Fetal hydrops and congenital complete heart block: response to maternal steroid therapy. J Pediatr 1988;112:646-8.
82. Rider LG, Buyon JP, Rutledge J, Sherry DD. Treatment of neonatal lupus: case report and review of the literature. J Rheumatol 1993;20:1208-11.
83. Copel J.A., Buyon J.P., Kleinman C.S. Successful in utero therapy of fetal heart block. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 173:1995;1384-1390
84. Groves AM, Allan LD, Rosenthal E. Outcome of isolated congenital complete heart block diagnosed in utero. Heart 1996;75:190-4.
85. Julkunen H, Kaaja R, Wallgren E, Teramo K. Isolated congenital heart block: fetal and infant outcome and familial incidence of heart block. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:11-6.
86. Esscher E, Scott JS. Congenital heart block and maternal systemic lupus erythematosus. BMJ 1979;1:1235-8.
87. Lanham JG, Walport MJ, Hughes GR. Congenital heart block and familial connective tissue disease. J Rheumatol 1983;10:823-5.
88. Lee RM, Brown MA, Branch DW, Ward K, Silver RM. Anticardiolipin and anti-beta2-glycoprotein-I antibodies in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:294-300.
89. Cowchock FS, Reece EA, Balaban D, Branch DW, Plouffe L. Repeated fetal losses associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: a collaborative randomized trial comparing prednisone with low-dose heparin treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1318-23.
90. Roubenoff R, Hoyt J, Petri M, Hochberg MC, Hellmann DB. Effects of antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs on pregnancy and fertility. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1988;18:88-110.
91. Scott JR. Fetal growth retardation associated with maternal administration of immunosuppressive drugs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977;128:668-76.
92. Silver RK, MacGregor SN, Sholl JS, Hobart JM, Neerhof MG, Ragin A. Comparative trial of prednisone plus aspirin versus aspirin alone in the treatment of anticardiolipin antibody-positive obstetric patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:1411-7.
93. Cote CJ, Meuwissen HJ, Pickering RJ. Effects on the neonate of prednisone and azathioprine administered to the mother during pregnancy. J Pediatr 1974;85:324-8.
94. Carr RE, Henkind P, Rothfield N, Siegel IM. Ocular toxicity of antimalarial drugs. Long-term follow-up. Am J Ophthalmol 1968;66:738-44.
95. Parke AL. Antimalarial drugs in pregnancy. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl 1998;107:125-7.
96. Wolfe MS, Cordero JF. Safety of chloroquine in chemosuppression of malaria during pregnancy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;290:1466-7.
97. Buyon JP, Nelson JL, Lockshin MD. The effects of pregnancy on autoimmune diseases. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1996;78:99-104.
98. Alarcon-Segovia D, Perez-Vazquez ME, Villa AR, Drenkard C, Cabiedes J. Preliminary classification criteria for the antiphospholipid syndrome within systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1992;21:275-86.
99. Harris EN. Syndrome of the black swan. Br J Rheumatol 1987;26:324-6.
100. Hughes GR, Harris NN, Gharavi AE. The anticardiolipin syndrome. J Rheumatol 1986;13:486-9.
101. Branch DW, Scott JR, Kochenour NK, Hershgold E. Obstetric complications associated with the lupus anticoagulant. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1322-6.
102. Harris EN, Chan JK, Asherson RA, Aber VR, Gharavi AE, Hughes GR. Thrombosis, recurrent fetal loss, and thrombocytopenia. Predictive value of the anticardiolipin antibody test. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:2153-6.
103. Beaumont JL. Acquired hemorrhagic syndrome caused by a circulating anticoagulant; inhibition of the thromboplastic function of the blood platelets; description of a specific test. Sang 1954;25:1-15 [undetermined language].
104. Nilsson IM, Astedt B, Hedner U, Berezin D. Intrauterine death and circulating anticoagulant ("antithromboplastin"). Acta Med Scand 1975;197:153-9.
105. Rai RS, Clifford K, Cohen H, Regan L. High prospective fetal loss rate in untreated pregnancies of women with recurrent miscarriage and antiphospholipid antibodies. Hum Reprod 1995;10:3301-4.
106. Reece EA, Romero R, Clyne LP, Kriz NS, Hobbins JC. Lupus-like anticoagulant in pregnancy. Lancet 1984;1:344-5.
107. Branch DW, Scott JR. Clinical implications of antiphospholipid antibodies: The Utah experience. In: Harris EN, et al, editors. Phospholipid binding antibodies. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1991. p. 335-46.
108. Lockwood CJ, Romero R, Feinberg RF, Clyne LP, Coster B, Hobbins JC. The prevalence and biologic significance of lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies in a general obstetric population. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:369-73.
109. Lynch A, Marlar R, Murphy J, Davila G, Santos M, Rutledge J, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in predicting adverse pregnancy outcome. A prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:470-5.
110. Out HJ, Bruinse HW, Christiaens GC, van Vliet M, de Groot PG, Nieuwenhuis HK, et al. A prospective, controlled multicenter study on the obstetric risks of pregnant women with antiphospholipid antibodies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:26-32.
111. Pattison NS, Chamley LW, McKay EJ, Liggins GC, Butler WS. Antiphospholipid antibodies in pregnancy: prevalence and clinical associations. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993;100:909-13.
112. Yasuda M, Takakuwa K, Tokunaga A, Tanaka K. Prospective studies of the association between anticardiolipin antibody and outcome of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1995;86:555-9.
113. Goldstein SR. Embryonic death in early pregnancy: a new look at the first trimester. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:294-7.
114. Oshiro BT, Silver RM, Scott JR, Yu H, Branch DW. Antiphospholipid antibodies and fetal death. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:489-93.
115. Barbui T, Cortelazzo S, Galli M, Parazzini F, Radici E, Rossi E, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in early repeated abortions: a case-controlled study. Fertil Steril 1988;50:589-92.
116. Out HJ, Bruinse HW, Derksen RH. Anti-phospholipid antibodies and pregnancy loss. Hum Reprod 1991;6:889-97.
117. Parazzini F, Acaia B, Faden D, Lovotti M, Marelli G, Cortelazzo S. Antiphospholipid antibodies and recurrent abortion. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:854-8.
118. Petri M, Golbus M, Anderson R, Whiting-O'Keefe Q, Corash L, Hellmann D. Antinuclear antibody, lupus anticoagulant, and anticardiolipin antibody in women with idiopathic habitual abortion. A controlled, prospective study of forty-four women. Arthritis Rheum 1987;30:601-6.
119. Yetman DL, Kutteh WH. Antiphospholipid antibody panels and recurrent pregnancy loss: prevalence of anticardiolipin antibodies compared with other antiphospholipid antibodies. Fertil Steril 1996;66:540-6.
120. Warburton D. Chromosomal causes of fetal death. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987;30:268-77.
121. Infante-Rivard C, David M, Gauthier R, Rivard GE. Lupus anticoagulants, anticardiolipin antibodies, and fetal loss. A case-control study. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1063-6.
122. Kutteh WH. Antiphospholipid antibody-associated recurrent pregnancy loss: treatment with heparin and low-dose aspirin is superior to low-dose aspirin alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1584-9.
123. Lima F, Khamashta MA, Buchanan NM, Kerslake S, Hunt BJ, Hughes GR. A study of sixty pregnancies in patients with the antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1996;14:131-6.
124. Druzin ML, Lockshin M, Edersheim TG, Hutson JM, Krauss AL, Kogut E. Second-trimester fetal monitoring and preterm delivery in pregnancies with systemic lupus erythematosus and/or circulating anticoagulant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;157:1503-10.
125. Branch DW, Andres R, Digre KB, Rote NS, Scott JR. The association of antiphospholipid antibodies with severe preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:541-5.
126. Milliez J, Lelong F, Bayani N, Jannet D, el Medjadji M, Latrous H, et al. The prevalence of autoantibodies during third-trimester pregnancy complicated by hypertension or idiopathic fetal growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:51-6.
127. Moodley J, Bhoola V, Duursma J, Pudifin D, Byrne S, Kenoyer DG. The association of antiphospholipid antibodies with severe early-onset pre-eclampsia. S Afr Med J 1995;85:105-7.
128. Sletnes KE, Wisloff F, Moe N, Dale PO. Antiphospholipid antibodies in pre-eclamptic women: relation to growth retardation and neonatal outcome. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1992;71:112-7.
129. Khamashta MA, Harris EN, Gharavi AE, Derue G, Gil A, Vazquez JJ, et al. Immune mediated mechanism for thrombosis: antiphospholipid antibody binding to platelet membranes. Ann Rheum Dis 1988;47:849-54.
130. Malm J, Laurell M, Nilsson IM, Dahlback B. Thromboembolic disease-critical evaluation of laboratory investigation. Thromb Haemost 1992;68:7-13.
131. Brey RL, Hart RG, Sherman DG, Tegeler CH. Antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia in young people. Neurology 1990;40:1190-6.
132. Silver RM, Draper ML, Scott JR, Lyon JL, Reading J, Branch DW. Clinical consequences of antiphospholipid antibodies: an historic cohort study. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:372-7.
133. Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GR. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995;332:993-7.
134. Rosove MH, Brewer PM. Antiphospholipid thrombosis: clinical course after the first thrombotic event in 70 patients. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:303-8.
135. Crowther MA, Ginsberg JS, Julian J, Denburg J, Hirsh J, Douketis J, et al. A comparison of two intensities of warfarin for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1133-8.
136. Harris EN, Asherson RA, Gharavi AE, Morgan SH, Derue G, Hughes GR. Thrombocytopenia in SLE and related autoimmune disorders: association with anticardiolipin antibody. Br J Haematol 1985;59:227-30.
137. Hochfeld M, Druzin ML, Maia D, Wright J, Lambert RE, McGuire J. Pregnancy complicated by primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:804-5.
138. Kochenour NK, Branch DW, Rote NS, Scott JR. A new postpartum syndrome associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Obstet Gynecol 1987;69:460-8.
139. Kupferminc MJ, Lee MJ, Green D, Peaceman AM. Severe postpartum pulmonary, cardiac, and renal syndrome associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:806-7.
140. Silver RM, Porter TF, van Leeuween I, Jeng G, Scott JR, Branch DW. Anticardiolipin antibodies: clinical consequences of "low titers." Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:494-500.
141. Rai RS, Regan L, Clifford K, Pickering W, Dave M, Mackie I, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and beta 2-glycoprotein-I in 500 women with recurrent miscarriage: results of a comprehensive screening approach. Hum Reprod 1995;10:2001-5.
142. Triplett DA, Brandt JT, Musgrave KA, Orr CA. The relationship between lupus anticoagulants and antibodies to phospholipid. JAMA 1988;259:550-4.
143. Harris EN, Spinnato JA. Should anticardiolipin tests be performed in otherwise healthy pregnant women? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:1272-7.
144. De Wolf F, Carreras LO, Moerman P, Vermylen J, Van Assche A, Renaer M. Decidual vasculopathy and extensive placental infarction in a patient with repeated thromboembolic accidents, recurrent fetal loss, and a lupus anticoagulant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;142:829-34.
145. Lubbe WF, Butler WS, Palmer SJ, Liggins GC. Lupus anticoagulant in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1984;91:357-63.
146. Nayar R, Lage JM. Placental changes in a first trimester missed abortion in maternal systemic lupus erythematosus with antiphospholipid syndrome; a case report and review of the literature. Hum Pathol 1996;27:201-6.
147. Silver RM, Draper ML, Byrne JL, Ashwood EA, Lyon JL, Branch DW. Unexplained elevations of maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein in women with antiphospholipid antibodies: a harbinger of fetal death. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:150-5.
148. Out HJ, Kooijman CD, Bruinse HW, Derksen RH. Histopathological findings in placentae from patients with intra-uterine fetal death and anti-phospholipid antibodies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1991;41:179-86.
149. Van Horn JJT, Craven C, Ward K, Branch DW, Silver RM. Histologic features of placentas and abortion specimens from women with antiphospholipid and antiphospholipid-like syndromes. Placenta, in press.
150. Lockshin MD. Pathogenesis of the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Lupus 1996;5:404-8.
151. Walsh SW. Preeclampsia: an imbalance in placental prostacyclin and thromboxane production. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;152:335-40.
152. Lubbe WF, Butler WS, Palmer SJ, Liggins GC. Fetal survival after prednisone suppression of maternal lupus-anticoagulant. Lancet 1983;1:1361-3.
153. Rosove MH, Tabsh K, Wasserstrum N, Howard P, Hahn BH, Kalunian KC. Heparin therapy for pregnant women with lupus anticoagulant or anticardiolipin antibodies. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:630-4.
154. Dulitzki M, Pauzner R, Langevitz P, Pras M, Many A, Schiff E. Low-molecular-weight heparin during pregnancy and delivery: preliminary experience with 41 pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:380-3.
155. Hunt BJ, Doughty HA, Majumdar G, Copplestone A, Kerslake S, Buchanan N, et al. Thromboprophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin) in high risk pregnancies. Thromb Haemost 1997;77:39-43.
156. Carreras LD, Perez GN, Vega HR, Casavilla F. Lupus anticoagulant and recurrent fetal loss: successful treatment with gammaglobulin. Lancet 1988;2:393-4.
157. Scott JR, Branch DW, Kochenour NK, Ward K. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of pregnant patients with recurrent pregnancy loss caused by antiphospholipid antibodies and Rh immunization. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159:1055-6.
158. Spinnato JA, Clark AL, Pierangeli S, Harris EN. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for the antiphospholipid syndrome in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;Feb 172:690-4.
159. Branch DW, Peaceman AM, Druzin M, Silver RK, El-Sayed Y, Silver RM, et al. A multicenter, placebo-controlled pilot study of intravenous immune globulin treatment of antiphospholipid syndrome during pregnancy. The Pregnancy Loss Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;182:122-7.
160. Erkan D, Merrill JT, Yazici Y, Sammaritano L, Buyon JP, Lockshin MD. High thrombosis rate after fetal loss in antiphospholipid syndrome: effective prophylaxis with aspirin. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44:1466-7.