Sidney Pressey and the automation of education, 1924-1934

Technology and Culture

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 305-330

  Petrina, Stephen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2942548972     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.2004.0085     Document Type: Review

References (235)

1. Stephen Petrina, "Getting a Purchase on the 'School of Tomorrow' and Its Constituent Commodities: Histories and Historiographies of Technologies," History of Education Quarterly 42 (2002): 75-111; William C. Bagley, "The Future of American Education," School and Society 32 (1930): 1-6; Otis W. Caldwell and Stuart A. Courtis, Then and Now in Education, 1845-1923 (New York, 1924), 155; Frederick Devereux, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of Business Education 10 (1934): 17-19; Joy Elmer Morgan, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of the National Education Association 18 (1929): 1.
2. Stephen Petrina, "Getting a Purchase on the 'School of Tomorrow' and Its Constituent Commodities: Histories and Historiographies of Technologies," History of Education Quarterly 42 (2002): 75-111; William C. Bagley, "The Future of American Education," School and Society 32 (1930): 1-6; Otis W. Caldwell and Stuart A. Courtis, Then and Now in Education, 1845-1923 (New York, 1924), 155; Frederick Devereux, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of Business Education 10 (1934): 17-19; Joy Elmer Morgan, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of the National Education Association 18 (1929): 1.
3. Stephen Petrina, "Getting a Purchase on the 'School of Tomorrow' and Its Constituent Commodities: Histories and Historiographies of Technologies," History of Education Quarterly 42 (2002): 75-111; William C. Bagley, "The Future of American Education," School and Society 32 (1930): 1-6; Otis W. Caldwell and Stuart A. Courtis, Then and Now in Education, 1845-1923 (New York, 1924), 155; Frederick Devereux, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of Business Education 10 (1934): 17-19; Joy Elmer Morgan, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of the National Education Association 18 (1929): 1.
4. Stephen Petrina, "Getting a Purchase on the 'School of Tomorrow' and Its Constituent Commodities: Histories and Historiographies of Technologies," History of Education Quarterly 42 (2002): 75-111; William C. Bagley, "The Future of American Education," School and Society 32 (1930): 1-6; Otis W. Caldwell and Stuart A. Courtis, Then and Now in Education, 1845-1923 (New York, 1924), 155; Frederick Devereux, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of Business Education 10 (1934): 17-19; Joy Elmer Morgan, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of the National Education Association 18 (1929): 1.
5. Stephen Petrina, "Getting a Purchase on the 'School of Tomorrow' and Its Constituent Commodities: Histories and Historiographies of Technologies," History of Education Quarterly 42 (2002): 75-111; William C. Bagley, "The Future of American Education," School and Society 32 (1930): 1-6; Otis W. Caldwell and Stuart A. Courtis, Then and Now in Education, 1845-1923 (New York, 1924), 155; Frederick Devereux, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of Business Education 10 (1934): 17-19; Joy Elmer Morgan, "The School of Tomorrow," Journal of the National Education Association 18 (1929): 1.
6. [Sidney L. Pressey], "First Results With, and Problems in the Development of Apparatus for Testing and Automatic Experimentation in Learning" [summer 1930], record group 40, box 49, folder 4, record 21, Sidney L. Pressey Papers, Ohio State University Archives (hereafter cited as record group/box/folder/record, Pressey Papers), 1-2. On Pressey's vision of the technological future, see Sidney L. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 582-83. On progressive education, see Ronald D. Cohen and Raymond A. Mohl, The Paradox of Progressive Education: The Gary Plan and Urban Schooling (Port Washington, N.Y., 1979), and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Progressive School Reform in Comparative Perspective," in Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South, ed. David N. Plank and Rick Ginsberg (New York, 1990), 151-74.
7. [Sidney L. Pressey], "First Results With, and Problems in the Development of Apparatus for Testing and Automatic Experimentation in Learning" [summer 1930], record group 40, box 49, folder 4, record 21, Sidney L. Pressey Papers, Ohio State University Archives (hereafter cited as record group/box/folder/record, Pressey Papers), 1-2. On Pressey's vision of the technological future, see Sidney L. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 582-83. On progressive education, see Ronald D. Cohen and Raymond A. Mohl, The Paradox of Progressive Education: The Gary Plan and Urban Schooling (Port Washington, N.Y., 1979), and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Progressive School Reform in Comparative Perspective," in Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South, ed. David N. Plank and Rick Ginsberg (New York, 1990), 151-74.
8. [Sidney L. Pressey], "First Results With, and Problems in the Development of Apparatus for Testing and Automatic Experimentation in Learning" [summer 1930], record group 40, box 49, folder 4, record 21, Sidney L. Pressey Papers, Ohio State University Archives (hereafter cited as record group/box/folder/record, Pressey Papers), 1-2. On Pressey's vision of the technological future, see Sidney L. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 582-83. On progressive education, see Ronald D. Cohen and Raymond A. Mohl, The Paradox of Progressive Education: The Gary Plan and Urban Schooling (Port Washington, N.Y., 1979), and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Progressive School Reform in Comparative Perspective," in Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South, ed. David N. Plank and Rick Ginsberg (New York, 1990), 151-74.
9. [Sidney L. Pressey], "First Results With, and Problems in the Development of Apparatus for Testing and Automatic Experimentation in Learning" [summer 1930], record group 40, box 49, folder 4, record 21, Sidney L. Pressey Papers, Ohio State University Archives (hereafter cited as record group/box/folder/record, Pressey Papers), 1-2. On Pressey's vision of the technological future, see Sidney L. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 582-83. On progressive education, see Ronald D. Cohen and Raymond A. Mohl, The Paradox of Progressive Education: The Gary Plan and Urban Schooling (Port Washington, N.Y., 1979), and Jeffrey E. Mirel, "Progressive School Reform in Comparative Perspective," in Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South, ed. David N. Plank and Rick Ginsberg (New York, 1990), 151-74.
10. On failures, see Hans-Joachim Braun, "Symposium on Failed Innovations," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 213-30; Steven L. Goldman, ed., Science, Technology, and Social Progress (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989); John Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985). On progress, see Goldman, and also Mark Rose, "Science as an Idiom in the Domain of Technology," Science and Technology Studies 5 (1987): 3-11.
11. On failures, see Hans-Joachim Braun, "Symposium on Failed Innovations," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 213-30; Steven L. Goldman, ed., Science, Technology, and Social Progress (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989); John Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985). On progress, see Goldman, and also Mark Rose, "Science as an Idiom in the Domain of Technology," Science and Technology Studies 5 (1987): 3-11.
12. On failures, see Hans-Joachim Braun, "Symposium on Failed Innovations," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 213-30; Steven L. Goldman, ed., Science, Technology, and Social Progress (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989); John Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985). On progress, see Goldman, and also Mark Rose, "Science as an Idiom in the Domain of Technology," Science and Technology Studies 5 (1987): 3-11.
13. On failures, see Hans-Joachim Braun, "Symposium on Failed Innovations," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 213-30; Steven L. Goldman, ed., Science, Technology, and Social Progress (Bethlehem, Pa., 1989); John Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985). On progress, see Goldman, and also Mark Rose, "Science as an Idiom in the Domain of Technology," Science and Technology Studies 5 (1987): 3-11.
14. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
15. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
16. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
17. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
18. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
19. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
20. On the intervention of psychologists in education, see Mona Gleason, "Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, the School and the Family in Post-World War II Canada, 1945-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Waterloo, 1996); George Madaus, "A Technological and Historical Consideration of Equity Issues Associated with Proposals to Change the Nation's Testing Policy," Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 76-102; Douglas Noble, The Classroom Arsenal (New York, 1991); Stephen Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation': Luella Cole, Sidney Pressey and Mental Surveying in Indiana, 1917-1921," History of Psychology 4 (2001): 245-71; Nikolas Rose, The Psychological Complex (London, 1985); Nikolas Rose, "Engineering the Human Soul: Analyzing Psychological Expertise," Science in Context 5 (1992): 351-69; Nikolas Rose, "The Psychological Complex: Mental Measurement and Social Administration," Ideology and Consciousness 5 (1979): 5-68.
21. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
22. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
23. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
24. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
25. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
26. On psychological apparatus, see W. D. Hackman, "Scientific Instruments: Models of Brass and Aids to Discovery," in The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), 31-65; John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, An Illustrated History of American Psychology (Madison, Wisc., 1994); Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993), a special theme issue on biomedical and behavioral technology. This is the first article to address educational technology in the forty-plus-year existence of Technology and Culture. "Education" does not appear in the index of Staudenmaier's Technology's Storytellers, an interpretive review of twenty-two years' worth of articles published in the journal. On the historiography of educational technology, see Petrina, "Getting a Purchase" (n. 1 above).
27. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
28. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
29. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
30. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
31. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
32. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
33. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
34. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
35. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
36. Of course, automation extended control over teachers' work, but that did not result in increased productivity or mental output, so to speak, from students. Proponents of automation in education - whose somewhat self-contradictory intent was to ameliorate the effects of mass-production methods in education by automating classroom procedures - realized this. If the automation of education was only partially a capital-for-labor trade-off, then our insights might as well derive from medical practices as from industrial ones. Automation and standardization were not merely forces of control and production, indifferent to individuals; in education, rather, these social practices were necessary for individualization, self-help, and self-distinction. On the automation of education, see William Brickman and Stanley Lehrer, eds., Automation, Education, and Human Values (New York, 1966); Luther H. Evans, ed., Automation and the Challenge to Education (Washington, D.C., 1962); James Finn, "Automatizing the Classroom," Audio-Visual Communication Review 5 (1957): 451-67; James Finn, "Technology and the Instructional Process," Audio-Visual Communication Review 8 (1960): 5-26; Lewis Mumford, "The Automation of Knowledge," Current Issues in Higher Education 19 (1964): 11-21; David Noble, Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education (Toronto, 2002). On industrial automation, see Harry Collins and Martin Kusch, "Automating Air Pumps: An Empirical and Conceptual Approach," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 802-29; Venus Green, "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49; David A. Hounshell, "Ford Automates: Technology and Organization in Theory and Practice," Business and Economic History 24 (1995): 59-71; David Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984).
37. For Michel Foucault, normalization is the disciplinary function of power or the deployment of discipline to control individual subjects. Normalization requires an entire set of "instruments, techniques, procedures, levels of application [and] targets." Educational practice is not merely constituted by discipline and surveillance. It is also meant to be liberal, or free and individualizing. This Liberality is not specifically a freedom from constraints, but is inscribed in the very nature of educational practice itself. As Foucault noted, "normalization imposes homogeneity; but it individualizes" as well. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan M. Sheridan-Smith (London, 1979), 184, 215-16; Thomas Osborne, "Medicine and Epistemology: Michel Foucault and the Liberality of Clinical Reason," History of the Human Sciences 5 (1992): 63-93.
38. For Michel Foucault, normalization is the disciplinary function of power or the deployment of discipline to control individual subjects. Normalization requires an entire set of "instruments, techniques, procedures, levels of application [and] targets." Educational practice is not merely constituted by discipline and surveillance. It is also meant to be liberal, or free and individualizing. This Liberality is not specifically a freedom from constraints, but is inscribed in the very nature of educational practice itself. As Foucault noted, "normalization imposes homogeneity; but it individualizes" as well. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan M. Sheridan-Smith (London, 1979), 184, 215-16; Thomas Osborne, "Medicine and Epistemology: Michel Foucault and the Liberality of Clinical Reason," History of the Human Sciences 5 (1992): 63-93.
39. John E. Anderson, "Report of the Secretary," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 69. Samuel W. Fernberger, "The American Psychological Association: Summary 1892-1930," Psychological Bulletin 29 (1932): 64. "Welfare of the World Depends on Science, Coolidge Declares," Washington Post, 1 January 1925.
40. John E. Anderson, "Report of the Secretary," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 69. Samuel W. Fernberger, "The American Psychological Association: Summary 1892-1930," Psychological Bulletin 29 (1932): 64. "Welfare of the World Depends on Science, Coolidge Declares," Washington Post, 1 January 1925.
41. John E. Anderson, "Report of the Secretary," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 69. Samuel W. Fernberger, "The American Psychological Association: Summary 1892-1930," Psychological Bulletin 29 (1932): 64. "Welfare of the World Depends on Science, Coolidge Declares," Washington Post, 1 January 1925.
42. John M. O'Donnell, The Origins of Behaviorism: American Psychology, 1870-1920 (New York, 1985), 216.
43. Albert P. Weiss, "A Methodological Change in Experimental Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 99. On the repudiation of introspection, see Deborah J. Coon, "Standardizing the Subject: Experimental Psychologists, Introspection, and the Quest for a Technoscientific Ideal," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 757-83; Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (Cambridge, 1990), 42-48; O'Donnell, 209.
44. Albert P. Weiss, "A Methodological Change in Experimental Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 99. On the repudiation of introspection, see Deborah J. Coon, "Standardizing the Subject: Experimental Psychologists, Introspection, and the Quest for a Technoscientific Ideal," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 757-83; Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (Cambridge, 1990), 42-48; O'Donnell, 209.
45. Albert P. Weiss, "A Methodological Change in Experimental Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 99. On the repudiation of introspection, see Deborah J. Coon, "Standardizing the Subject: Experimental Psychologists, Introspection, and the Quest for a Technoscientific Ideal," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 757-83; Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (Cambridge, 1990), 42-48; O'Donnell, 209.
46. Albert P. Weiss, "A Methodological Change in Experimental Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 99. On the repudiation of introspection, see Deborah J. Coon, "Standardizing the Subject: Experimental Psychologists, Introspection, and the Quest for a Technoscientific Ideal," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 757-83; Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (Cambridge, 1990), 42-48; O'Donnell, 209.
47. Sidney L. Pressey, "A Simple Self-Recording Double-Action Multiple Choice Apparatus," Psychological Bulletin 22 (1925): 111.
48. Robert M. Yerkes, "A New Method of Studying the Ideational Behavior of Mentally Defective and Deranged as Compared with Normal Individuals," Journal of Comparative Psychology 1 (1921): 372. On the debate regarding "applied" versus "pure" status of various psychological apparatus and practices, see Truman Kelley and Lewis M. Terman, "Dr. Ruml's Criticism of Mental Test Methods," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 459-65; Sidney L. Pressey, "Empiricism Versus Formalism in Work with Mental Tests," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 393-98; Lewis M. Terman, "The Mental Test as a Psychological Method," Psychological Review 31 (1924): 108.
49. Robert M. Yerkes, "A New Method of Studying the Ideational Behavior of Mentally Defective and Deranged as Compared with Normal Individuals," Journal of Comparative Psychology 1 (1921): 372. On the debate regarding "applied" versus "pure" status of various psychological apparatus and practices, see Truman Kelley and Lewis M. Terman, "Dr. Ruml's Criticism of Mental Test Methods," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 459-65; Sidney L. Pressey, "Empiricism Versus Formalism in Work with Mental Tests," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 393-98; Lewis M. Terman, "The Mental Test as a Psychological Method," Psychological Review 31 (1924): 108.
50. Robert M. Yerkes, "A New Method of Studying the Ideational Behavior of Mentally Defective and Deranged as Compared with Normal Individuals," Journal of Comparative Psychology 1 (1921): 372. On the debate regarding "applied" versus "pure" status of various psychological apparatus and practices, see Truman Kelley and Lewis M. Terman, "Dr. Ruml's Criticism of Mental Test Methods," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 459-65; Sidney L. Pressey, "Empiricism Versus Formalism in Work with Mental Tests," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 393-98; Lewis M. Terman, "The Mental Test as a Psychological Method," Psychological Review 31 (1924): 108.
51. Robert M. Yerkes, "A New Method of Studying the Ideational Behavior of Mentally Defective and Deranged as Compared with Normal Individuals," Journal of Comparative Psychology 1 (1921): 372. On the debate regarding "applied" versus "pure" status of various psychological apparatus and practices, see Truman Kelley and Lewis M. Terman, "Dr. Ruml's Criticism of Mental Test Methods," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 459-65; Sidney L. Pressey, "Empiricism Versus Formalism in Work with Mental Tests," Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921): 393-98; Lewis M. Terman, "The Mental Test as a Psychological Method," Psychological Review 31 (1924): 108.
52. James McKeen Cattell, "Our Psychological Association and Research," Science 57 (1917): 275-85; Donald S. Napoli, Architects of Adjustment: The History of the Psychological Profession in the United States (London, 1981); Michael Sokal, "The Origins of the Psychological Corporation," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17 (1981): 54-67. On educational psychology, see J. B. Mailer, "Forty Years of Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 31 (1934): 533-59.
53. James McKeen Cattell, "Our Psychological Association and Research," Science 57 (1917): 275-85; Donald S. Napoli, Architects of Adjustment: The History of the Psychological Profession in the United States (London, 1981); Michael Sokal, "The Origins of the Psychological Corporation," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17 (1981): 54-67. On educational psychology, see J. B. Mailer, "Forty Years of Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 31 (1934): 533-59.
54. James McKeen Cattell, "Our Psychological Association and Research," Science 57 (1917): 275-85; Donald S. Napoli, Architects of Adjustment: The History of the Psychological Profession in the United States (London, 1981); Michael Sokal, "The Origins of the Psychological Corporation," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17 (1981): 54-67. On educational psychology, see J. B. Mailer, "Forty Years of Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 31 (1934): 533-59.
55. James McKeen Cattell, "Our Psychological Association and Research," Science 57 (1917): 275-85; Donald S. Napoli, Architects of Adjustment: The History of the Psychological Profession in the United States (London, 1981); Michael Sokal, "The Origins of the Psychological Corporation," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 17 (1981): 54-67. On educational psychology, see J. B. Mailer, "Forty Years of Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 31 (1934): 533-59.
56. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
57. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
58. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
59. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
60. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78;
61. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
62. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
63. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
64. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
65. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
66. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
67. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
68. "Machine Tests Intellect," Wapakoneta Republican, 5 February 1925; "Newsclippings: 1930-1967," 40/49/3/32, Pressey Papers. On testing, see Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Michael Ackerman, "Mental Testing and the Expansion of Educational Opportunity," History of Education Quarterly 35 (1995): 279-300; Benjamin Beit-Hallahami, "Science, Ideology, and Ideals: The Social History of IQ Testing," Centennial Review 38 (1994): 341-60; John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993): 278-309; Hamilton Cravens, Before Head Start: The Iowa Station and America's Children (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); David Hogan, "The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power: Joseph Lancaster and the Psychology of the Early Classroom System," History of Education Quarterly 29 (1989): 381-417; David Hogan, "Examinations, Merit, and Morals: The Market Revolution and Disciplinary Power in Philadelphia's Public Schools, 1838-1868," Historical Studies in Education 4 (1992): 31-78; Madaus (n. 4 above); Judith R. Raftery, "Missing the Mark: Intelligence Testing in Los Angeles Public Schools, 1922-1932," History of Education Quarterly 28 (1988): 73-93; Patrick Ryan, "Unnatural Selection: Intelligence Testing, Eugenics and American Political Cultures," Journal of Social History 30 (1997): 669-85; Wayne Urban, "The Black Scholar and Intelligence Testing: The Case of Horace Mann Bond," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 25 (1989): 323-34; Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, 1998).
69. From the mid-1920s to the early 1930s OSU was ranked one of the top three graduate research institutions in psychology, the others being Columbia University and Stanford University. OSU's Department of Psychology graduate program grew from ten students in 1921 to seventy-eight in 1930. The growth of psychology at OSU in the 1920s reproduced a more general pattern among Midwestern state universities. The universities of the northern Midwest, such as OSU, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, and Wisconsin, employed 31 percent of APA-affiliated psychologists in the late 1910s and 1920s. On OSU psychology in the 1920s, see George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30,1926," in Fifty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1926 (Columbus, Ohio, 1926), 58. On the commercialization of apparatus, see nn. 5, 13, and 14 above, as well as Victoria Luther, "Circling the World with Psychological Supplies," Industrial Psychology Monthly 2 (1927): 12-16.
70. From the mid-1920s to the early 1930s OSU was ranked one of the top three graduate research institutions in psychology, the others being Columbia University and Stanford University. OSU's Department of Psychology graduate program grew from ten students in 1921 to seventy-eight in 1930. The growth of psychology at OSU in the 1920s reproduced a more general pattern among Midwestern state universities. The universities of the northern Midwest, such as OSU, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, and Wisconsin, employed 31 percent of APA-affiliated psychologists in the late 1910s and 1920s. On OSU psychology in the 1920s, see George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30,1926," in Fifty-Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1926 (Columbus, Ohio, 1926), 58. On the commercialization of apparatus, see nn. 5, 13, and 14 above, as well as Victoria Luther, "Circling the World with Psychological Supplies," Industrial Psychology Monthly 2 (1927): 12-16.
71. Sidney Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus which Gives and Scores Tests - and Teaches," School and Society 23 (1926): 374; Sidney L. Pressey, "A Machine for intelligence Tests," United States patent no. 1,670,480 (22 May 1928), 1; George Brown to Pressey, 16 February 1926, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
72. Sidney Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus which Gives and Scores Tests - and Teaches," School and Society 23 (1926): 374; Sidney L. Pressey, "A Machine for intelligence Tests," United States patent no. 1,670,480 (22 May 1928), 1; George Brown to Pressey, 16 February 1926, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
73. Pressey to the A. B. Dick Company, 6 March 1926, 40/49/4/25, and Pressey to Underwood Typewriter Company, 5 April 1926, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
74. George A. Brown to Pressey, 16 February 1926, 40/49/4/26; [George H. Pfefferle] to Pressey, 22 April 1926, 40/49/4/26; and C. H. Stoelting to Pressey, 11 December 1926, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
75. George A. Brown to Pressey, 16 February 1926, 40/49/4/26; [George H. Pfefferle] to Pressey, 22 April 1926, 40/49/4/26; and C. H. Stoelting to Pressey, 11 December 1926, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
76. George A. Brown to Pressey, 16 February 1926, 40/49/4/26; [George H. Pfefferle] to Pressey, 22 April 1926, 40/49/4/26; and C. H. Stoelting to Pressey, 11 December 1926, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
77. A. C. Watson to Pressey, 22 February 1927, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers, 2.
78. Burdette R. Buckingham, "Progress and Present Status of Subject-Matter Testing," Studies in Education 11 (1922): 44; "Tests and Estimates for Rating and Promotion," American Educational Digest 47 (September 1927): 53, 54; Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Dean A. Worcester, "Has Testing Been Overemphasized?" School Executives Magazine 51 (1932): 468.
79. Burdette R. Buckingham, "Progress and Present Status of Subject-Matter Testing," Studies in Education 11 (1922): 44; "Tests and Estimates for Rating and Promotion," American Educational Digest 47 (September 1927): 53, 54; Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Dean A. Worcester, "Has Testing Been Overemphasized?" School Executives Magazine 51 (1932): 468.
80. Burdette R. Buckingham, "Progress and Present Status of Subject-Matter Testing," Studies in Education 11 (1922): 44; "Tests and Estimates for Rating and Promotion," American Educational Digest 47 (September 1927): 53, 54; Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Dean A. Worcester, "Has Testing Been Overemphasized?" School Executives Magazine 51 (1932): 468.
81. Burdette R. Buckingham, "Progress and Present Status of Subject-Matter Testing," Studies in Education 11 (1922): 44; "Tests and Estimates for Rating and Promotion," American Educational Digest 47 (September 1927): 53, 54; Petrina, "'The Never-To-Be-Forgotten Investigation'" (n. 4 above); Dean A. Worcester, "Has Testing Been Overemphasized?" School Executives Magazine 51 (1932): 468.
82. Pressey estimated that the Automatic Teacher would save about sixteen hundred dollars per year in clerical services at an institution such as OSU, where each year the OSU Intelligence Scale was administered to about two thousand first-year students, and one million possible answers were scored. Women dominated clerical jobs and primary school teaching during this era; secondary school teaching remained a male province until the early 1920s. Gender was a factor in automating testing practices, but it was not until the mid-1930s that the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) raised the stakes in a bid to eliminate clerical labor in test scoring. Pressey to National Cash Register Company, 31 December 1927, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus," 376. Numerous scholars have addressed threats posed by technology to teachers' employment. On gender and technology, see Michael Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (New York, 1988), 31-80. On gender and automation, see Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Ronald R. Kline, "Ideology and Social Surveys: Reinterpreting the Effects of 'Laborsaving' Technology on American Farm Women," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 355-85.
83. Pressey estimated that the Automatic Teacher would save about sixteen hundred dollars per year in clerical services at an institution such as OSU, where each year the OSU Intelligence Scale was administered to about two thousand first-year students, and one million possible answers were scored. Women dominated clerical jobs and primary school teaching during this era; secondary school teaching remained a male province until the early 1920s. Gender was a factor in automating testing practices, but it was not until the mid-1930s that the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) raised the stakes in a bid to eliminate clerical labor in test scoring. Pressey to National Cash Register Company, 31 December 1927, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus," 376. Numerous scholars have addressed threats posed by technology to teachers' employment. On gender and technology, see Michael Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (New York, 1988), 31-80. On gender and automation, see Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Ronald R. Kline, "Ideology and Social Surveys: Reinterpreting the Effects of 'Laborsaving' Technology on American Farm Women," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 355-85.
84. Pressey estimated that the Automatic Teacher would save about sixteen hundred dollars per year in clerical services at an institution such as OSU, where each year the OSU Intelligence Scale was administered to about two thousand first-year students, and one million possible answers were scored. Women dominated clerical jobs and primary school teaching during this era; secondary school teaching remained a male province until the early 1920s. Gender was a factor in automating testing practices, but it was not until the mid-1930s that the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) raised the stakes in a bid to eliminate clerical labor in test scoring. Pressey to National Cash Register Company, 31 December 1927, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus," 376. Numerous scholars have addressed threats posed by technology to teachers' employment. On gender and technology, see Michael Apple, Teachers and Texts: A Political Economy of Class and Gender Relations in Education (New York, 1988), 31-80. On gender and automation, see Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Ronald R. Kline, "Ideology and Social Surveys: Reinterpreting the Effects of 'Laborsaving' Technology on American Farm Women," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 355-85.
85. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
86. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
87. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
88. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
89. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
90. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
91. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
92. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
93. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
94. On the standardization of education, see Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago, 1962). While individualization is defined by example here, in education it generally meant: (1) Individuals are whole entities with bodies and minds that differed, as confirmed by cultural circumstance and evolutionary variability; (2) Each individual has a unique genetic ancestry, social development, and present constitution that should be assessed and known; and (3) In consequence of no. 1 and no. 2, idiosyncrasies in capability, background, and personality ought to be accommodated in expectations and treatment. Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization in Education," University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin 1 (1930): 52-54; Stuart A. Courtis, "Individualization," Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals 9 (1930): 273-77; Stuart A. Courtis, "The Evolution of Individualization," Educational Method 15 (1936): 291-98; David Snedden, "Ameliorating Mass-Production Processes in Education," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 338-47; Frederick Buck, "Everychild at the School Door," Survey 35 (1916): 635. On the history of individualization, see G. Thomas Fox and M. Vere DeVault, "An Historical Perspective on Individualized Instruction," Programmed Learning and Educational Technology 15(1978): 271-82; Frank M. Grittner, "Individualized Instruction: An Historical Perspective," Modern Language Journal 59 (1975): 323-33; James M. Hessler, "The Content of Arguments in Individualization of Instruction" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1977); Russell Marks, "Providing for Individual Differences: A History of the Intelligence Testing Movement in North America," Interchange 7 (1976): 3-16.
95. Callahan; W. C. Reavis and Robert Woellner, "Labor-Saving Devices Used in Office Administration in Secondary Schools," School Review 36 (1928): 736-44; Charles H. Judd, "Education," in President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States (New York, 1933), 371, table 25; Henry Harap, "The New Curriculum and Instructional Supplies," Journal of Educational Method 7 (1928): 304-11.
96. Callahan; W. C. Reavis and Robert Woellner, "Labor-Saving Devices Used in Office Administration in Secondary Schools," School Review 36 (1928): 736-44; Charles H. Judd, "Education," in President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States (New York, 1933), 371, table 25; Henry Harap, "The New Curriculum and Instructional Supplies," Journal of Educational Method 7 (1928): 304-11.
97. Callahan; W. C. Reavis and Robert Woellner, "Labor-Saving Devices Used in Office Administration in Secondary Schools," School Review 36 (1928): 736-44; Charles H. Judd, "Education," in President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States (New York, 1933), 371, table 25; Henry Harap, "The New Curriculum and Instructional Supplies," Journal of Educational Method 7 (1928): 304-11.
98. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
99. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
100. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
101. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
102. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
103. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
104. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
105. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
106. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
107. Thomas Finegan, "Classroom Films," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 50-66; Frank Freeman, Visual Education (Chicago, 1924); H. R. Gray, "Improved Learning Aids and Future Educational Reorganization," Teachers College Record 43 (1936): 599-602; V. L. Kooser, "Present Trends in the Use of Visual Instruction Aids," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 141-42; Ibert Mellan, "Teaching and Educational Inventions," Journal of Experimental Education 4 (1936): 291-96; Howard McClusky, "Mechanical Aids to Education and the New Teacher - A Prophecy," Education 55 (1934): 83-88; "Professor Reynolds Holds that Modern School Fits Pupils for Machine Age," Teachers College Record 32 (1930): 649-51; L. W. Reese,"The Radio Takes on Education," American School Board Journal 80 (1930): 39; Charles L. Robbins, "On Mechanizing Education," Educational Review 65 (1923): 162-68; Ben Wood, "Mechanical Education Wanted," Harvard Teachers Record 1 (1931): 46-50.
108. Sidney L. Pressey, "A Machine for Automatic Teaching of Drill Material," School and Society 25 (1927): 549-52.
109. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
110. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
111. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
112. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
113. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
114. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
115. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
116. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York, 1911), 244; Edward L. Thorndike, "The Law of Effect," American Journal of Psychology 39 (1927): 212-22; Edward L. Thorndike, Fundamentals of learning (New York, 1932), 1-7, 176-77; Edward L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants, Interests and Attitudes (New York, 1935), 212-17; Melvin E. Haggerty, "The Laws of Learning," Psychological Review 20 (1913): 414; Robert T. Rock, "Thorndike's Contributions to the Psychology of Learning " Teachers College Record 41(1940): 751-61; Vivian Trow Thayer, The Passing of the Recitation (Boston, 1928), 83; Noel B. Cuff, "The Law of Use," Journal of Educational Psychology 20 (1929): 438.
117. S. A. Courlis to Pressey, 30 March 1926, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to S. A. Courlis, 12 December 1927, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to Welch, 9 January 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
118. S. A. Courlis to Pressey, 30 March 1926, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to S. A. Courlis, 12 December 1927, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to Welch, 9 January 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
119. S. A. Courlis to Pressey, 30 March 1926, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to S. A. Courlis, 12 December 1927, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to Welch, 9 January 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
120. Victoria Luther, "Circling the World with Psychological Supplies," Industrial Psychology Monthly 2 (1927): 12-16; "Consistency Reaps Its Reward," advertisement, Nation's Schools 7 (May 1931): 8; "W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company," advertisement, American School and University, 3rd annual ed. (New York, 1928), 343.
121. Victoria Luther, "Circling the World with Psychological Supplies," Industrial Psychology Monthly 2 (1927): 12-16; "Consistency Reaps Its Reward," advertisement, Nation's Schools 7 (May 1931): 8; "W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company," advertisement, American School and University, 3rd annual ed. (New York, 1928), 343.
122. Victoria Luther, "Circling the World with Psychological Supplies," Industrial Psychology Monthly 2 (1927): 12-16; "Consistency Reaps Its Reward," advertisement, Nation's Schools 7 (May 1931): 8; "W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company," advertisement, American School and University, 3rd annual ed. (New York, 1928), 343.
123. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 14 May 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers, 1-2.
124. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 12 February 1929, 40/49/4/25; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 18 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25; E. P. Cubberly to Pressey, 31 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
125. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 12 February 1929, 40/49/4/25; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 18 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25; E. P. Cubberly to Pressey, 31 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
126. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 12 February 1929, 40/49/4/25; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 18 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25; E. P. Cubberly to Pressey, 31 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
127. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 12 February 1929, 40/49/4/25; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 18 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25; E. P. Cubberly to Pressey, 31 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
128. M. W. Welch to Pressey, 12 February 1929, 40/49/4/25; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 18 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25; E. P. Cubberly to Pressey, 31 May 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to M. W. Welch, 11 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
129. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
130. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
131. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
132. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
133. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
134. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
135. Pressey to N. W. Welch [sic], 19 June 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 22 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 24 July 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 17 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; and Pressey to R. E. Welch, 23 September 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
136. R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 3 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 5 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; and circular, [ca. May 1929], 40/49/4/21, Pressey Papers. Sidney L. Pressey, "Machine for Intelligence Tests", United States patent no. 1,749,226 (4 March 1930), 1.
137. R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 3 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 5 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; and circular, [ca. May 1929], 40/49/4/21, Pressey Papers. Sidney L. Pressey, "Machine for Intelligence Tests", United States patent no. 1,749,226 (4 March 1930), 1.
138. R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 3 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 5 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; and circular, [ca. May 1929], 40/49/4/21, Pressey Papers. Sidney L. Pressey, "Machine for Intelligence Tests", United States patent no. 1,749,226 (4 March 1930), 1.
139. R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 3 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 5 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; and circular, [ca. May 1929], 40/49/4/21, Pressey Papers. Sidney L. Pressey, "Machine for Intelligence Tests", United States patent no. 1,749,226 (4 March 1930), 1.
140. R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 September 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 3 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 5 October 1929, 40/49/4/25; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; "Agreement," 25 October 1929, 40/49/4/31; and circular, [ca. May 1929], 40/49/4/21, Pressey Papers. Sidney L. Pressey, "Machine for Intelligence Tests", United States patent no. 1,749,226 (4 March 1930), 1.
141. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 15 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 30 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; and M. W. Welch, 11 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
142. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 15 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 30 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; and M. W. Welch, 11 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
143. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 15 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 30 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; and M. W. Welch, 11 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
144. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 15 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 30 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; and M. W. Welch, 11 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
145. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 15 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 30 November 1929, 40/49/4/25; and M. W. Welch, 11 December 1929, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers.
146. R. E. Welch to L. C. Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; and R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
147. R. E. Welch to L. C. Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; and R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
148. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
149. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
150. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
151. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
152. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
153. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
154. "Memorandum in re the Load of the Department of Psychology," 10 April 1930, 3/f/40/10, George W. Rightmire Papers, OSU Archives, 1-6; "College of Education," in The Ohio State University Catalog, 1930-1931 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 95-99, 199-208; George F. Arps, "Report of the College of Education for the Year Ending June 30, 1930," in Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Ohio State University for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Columbus, Ohio, 1930), 154; Robert I. Wherry, A Statistical History of the Department of Psychology at the Ohio State University, 1907-1968 (Columbus, Ohio, 1968), 9-10; Robert S. Harper, "Tables of American Doctorates in Psychology," American Journal of Psychology 62 (1949): 582-83; Pressey to Gilchriese, 5 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers; Arps to Rightmire, 10 January 1930, 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
155. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 May 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With" (n. 2 above), 1. Pressey to Rogers, 3 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
156. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 May 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With" (n. 2 above), 1. Pressey to Rogers, 3 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
157. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 May 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With" (n. 2 above), 1. Pressey to Rogers, 3 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
158. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 May 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With" (n. 2 above), 1. Pressey to Rogers, 3 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
159. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 May 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With" (n. 2 above), 1. Pressey to Rogers, 3 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Perkins, 8 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, Pressey Papers.
160. "Apparatus is Invented by Professor to Test, Score and Help in Teaching" Columbus Dispatch, 13 April 1930; "Exams by Machinery," Ohio State University Monthly, May 1931, 339. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers. John S. Sewell, "The Basic Sciences at the Chicago Centennial Exposition, 1933," Science 74 (1931): 94-95. Psychology was not among the "basic sciences," and the social science exhibits were excluded from the main hall of science. On fairs during the 1930s, see Robert W. Rydell, "The Fan Dance of Science," Isis 76 (1985): 525-42.
161. "Apparatus is Invented by Professor to Test, Score and Help in Teaching" Columbus Dispatch, 13 April 1930; "Exams by Machinery," Ohio State University Monthly, May 1931, 339. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers. John S. Sewell, "The Basic Sciences at the Chicago Centennial Exposition, 1933," Science 74 (1931): 94-95. Psychology was not among the "basic sciences," and the social science exhibits were excluded from the main hall of science. On fairs during the 1930s, see Robert W. Rydell, "The Fan Dance of Science," Isis 76 (1985): 525-42.
162. "Apparatus is Invented by Professor to Test, Score and Help in Teaching" Columbus Dispatch, 13 April 1930; "Exams by Machinery," Ohio State University Monthly, May 1931, 339. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers. John S. Sewell, "The Basic Sciences at the Chicago Centennial Exposition, 1933," Science 74 (1931): 94-95. Psychology was not among the "basic sciences," and the social science exhibits were excluded from the main hall of science. On fairs during the 1930s, see Robert W. Rydell, "The Fan Dance of Science," Isis 76 (1985): 525-42.
163. "Apparatus is Invented by Professor to Test, Score and Help in Teaching" Columbus Dispatch, 13 April 1930; "Exams by Machinery," Ohio State University Monthly, May 1931, 339. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers. John S. Sewell, "The Basic Sciences at the Chicago Centennial Exposition, 1933," Science 74 (1931): 94-95. Psychology was not among the "basic sciences," and the social science exhibits were excluded from the main hall of science. On fairs during the 1930s, see Robert W. Rydell, "The Fan Dance of Science," Isis 76 (1985): 525-42.
164. "Apparatus is Invented by Professor to Test, Score and Help in Teaching" Columbus Dispatch, 13 April 1930; "Exams by Machinery," Ohio State University Monthly, May 1931, 339. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/25, Pressey Papers. John S. Sewell, "The Basic Sciences at the Chicago Centennial Exposition, 1933," Science 74 (1931): 94-95. Psychology was not among the "basic sciences," and the social science exhibits were excluded from the main hall of science. On fairs during the 1930s, see Robert W. Rydell, "The Fan Dance of Science," Isis 76 (1985): 525-42.
165. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; Perkins to Pressey, 24 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 11 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With," 2.
166. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; Perkins to Pressey, 24 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 11 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With," 2.
167. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; Perkins to Pressey, 24 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 11 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With," 2.
168. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; Perkins to Pressey, 24 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 11 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With," 2.
169. Gilchriese to Pressey, 28 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to Gilchriese, 14 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; Perkins to Pressey, 24 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 11 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Niffennecker, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26, p. 1, Pressey Papers. Pressey, "First Results With," 2.
170. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
171. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
172. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
173. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
174. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
175. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
176. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
177. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
178. Pressey to R. E. Welch, 3 January [1930], 40/49/4/25; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 4 February 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 10 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; Pressey to R. E. Welch, 13 March 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 11 April 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; "Directions for Use of the Automatic Testing Machine," 10 December 1929, 40/49/4/16 and 40/49/4/23; "Directions for Use of the Test Machine (Drill Set)," [spring 1930], 40/49/4/21; and "Memorandum Regarding Key Sheets on Testing Machine," [January 1930], 40/49/4/28, Pressey Papers.
179. Pressey to M. W. Welch, 20 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; and R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 October 1930, 40/49/4/26.
180. Pressey to M. W. Welch, 20 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; and R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 October 1930, 40/49/4/26.
181. Pressey to M. W. Welch, 20 June 1930, 40/49/4/26; R. E. Welch to Pressey, 22 May 1930, 40/49/4/26; and R. E. Welch to Pressey, 21 October 1930, 40/49/4/26.
182. "Students May Soon Take Exams by Simple Punching of Keys," Columbus Dispatch, 7 January 1931. News clippings, various dates, 40/49/3/32; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 15 January 1931, 40/49/2/5; and M. W. Welch to Pressey, 26 August 1931, 40/49/4/26, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
183. "Students May Soon Take Exams by Simple Punching of Keys," Columbus Dispatch, 7 January 1931. News clippings, various dates, 40/49/3/32; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 15 January 1931, 40/49/2/5; and M. W. Welch to Pressey, 26 August 1931, 40/49/4/26, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
184. "Students May Soon Take Exams by Simple Punching of Keys," Columbus Dispatch, 7 January 1931. News clippings, various dates, 40/49/3/32; M. W. Welch to Pressey, 15 January 1931, 40/49/2/5; and M. W. Welch to Pressey, 26 August 1931, 40/49/4/26, p. 2, Pressey Papers.
185. Sidney L. Pressey, "A Third and Fourth Contribution toward the Coming 'Industrial Revolution' in Education," School and Society 36 (1932): 672; Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (n. 2 above), 582-83. [Presseyl to M. W. Welch, [September 1931], 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Esper, 24 January 1941, 40/49/4/27, Pressey Papers.
186. Sidney L. Pressey, "A Third and Fourth Contribution toward the Coming 'Industrial Revolution' in Education," School and Society 36 (1932): 672; Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (n. 2 above), 582-83. [Presseyl to M. W. Welch, [September 1931], 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Esper, 24 January 1941, 40/49/4/27, Pressey Papers.
187. Sidney L. Pressey, "A Third and Fourth Contribution toward the Coming 'Industrial Revolution' in Education," School and Society 36 (1932): 672; Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (n. 2 above), 582-83. [Presseyl to M. W. Welch, [September 1931], 40/49/4/26; and Pressey to Esper, 24 January 1941, 40/49/4/27, Pressey Papers.
188. James K. Little, "An Investigation by Means of Special Test-Scoring and Drill Devices of the Effect of Certain Instructional Procedures on Learning in Educational Psychology" (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1934), 16, 103; James K. Little, "Results of Use of Machines for Testing and for Drill, upon Learning in Educational Psychology," Journal of Experimental Education 3 (1934): 49; [Sidney L. Presseyl, "Report on 407 Psychology Experiment for Year 1929-30," [April 1930], 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
189. James K. Little, "An Investigation by Means of Special Test-Scoring and Drill Devices of the Effect of Certain Instructional Procedures on Learning in Educational Psychology" (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1934), 16, 103; James K. Little, "Results of Use of Machines for Testing and for Drill, upon Learning in Educational Psychology," Journal of Experimental Education 3 (1934): 49; [Sidney L. Presseyl, "Report on 407 Psychology Experiment for Year 1929-30," [April 1930], 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
190. James K. Little, "An Investigation by Means of Special Test-Scoring and Drill Devices of the Effect of Certain Instructional Procedures on Learning in Educational Psychology" (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1934), 16, 103; James K. Little, "Results of Use of Machines for Testing and for Drill, upon Learning in Educational Psychology," Journal of Experimental Education 3 (1934): 49; [Sidney L. Presseyl, "Report on 407 Psychology Experiment for Year 1929-30," [April 1930], 3/f/40/10, Rightmire Papers.
191. Oscar H. Gandy, "Instructional Technology: The Reselling of the Pentagon" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1976).
192. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
193. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
194. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
195. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
196. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
197. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
198. Pressey is the grandfather of the teaching machine, programmed learning, and computer-assisted instruction for practitioners of educational psychology, media, and technology. His status as an independent inventor-scientist exploring the dark territory of mass education has been reinforced through autobiographies, whig histories, and the National Museum of History and Technology's 1963 acquisition of his intelligence-testing machine and the Automatic Teacher. "Pressey's Teaching Machine at Smithsonian," Phi Delta Kappan 44 (1963): 434; Glen Cartwright, "Antecedents and Consequences of Educational Technology," McGill Journal of Education 8 (1973): 145; Arthur P. Coladarci, "Sidney Pressey to Receive First E. L. Thorndike Award," Educational Psychologist 1 (1963): 3; Robert Glaser, "Christmas Past, Present, and Future," Contemporary Psychology 5 (1960): 24; Ludy T. Benjamin, "A History of Teaching Machines," American Psychologist 43 (1988): 703-12; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and G. Lindzey (New York, 1967), 311-39; Sidney L. Pressey, "Sidney Leavitt Pressey," in Leaders in American Education: The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pt. 2, ed. Robert J. Havighurst (Chicago, 1971), 231-65.
199. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
200. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
201. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
202. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
203. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
204. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
205. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
206. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, trans. Alan M. Sheridan Smith (New York, 1973); Foucault, Discipline and Punish (n. 7 above), 184-210; Michel Foucault, "Technologies of the Self," in Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. Luther Martin, Huck Gutman, and Patrick H. Hutton (Amherst, Mass., 1988), 16-49; Stuart Hall, "Variants of Liberalism," in Politics and Ideology, ed. James Donald and Stuart Hall (Philadelphia, 1986), 34-69; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, "On Therapeutic Authority: Psychoanalytic Expertise under Advanced Liberalism," History of the Human Sciences 7 (1994): 29-64; Osborne (n. 7 above); Thomas Osborne, "On Liberalism, Neo-Liberalism and the 'Liberal Profession' of Medicine," Economy and Society 22 (1993): 345-56. On education and medicine, see JoAnne Brown, The Definition of a Profession (Princeton, N.J., 1992).
207. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
208. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
209. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
210. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
211. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
212. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and
213. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
214. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
215. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
216. On medicine and automation, see Stuart Blume, Insight and Industry: On the Dynamics of Technological Change in Medicine (London, 1992); Jeanne Daly and Evan Willis, "Technological Innovation and the Labour Process in Health Care," Social Science and Medicine 28 (1989): 1149-1157; Mary Ann Elston, ed., The Sociology of Medical Science and Technology (Oxford, 1997); Jerald S. Maxmen, The Post-Physician Era: Medicine in the Twenty-First Century (New York, 1976); Stanley J. Reiser, Medicine and Reign and Technology (London, 1978); and Stanley J. Reiser and Michael Anbar, eds., The Machine at the Bedside (London, 1984). On physicians' views of technology in the 1920s and 1930s, see C. MacFie Campbell, "Psychiatry and the Practice of Medicine," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 190 (1924): 1058-1063; James B. Herrick,"The Clinician of the Future," Journal of the American Medical Association 86 (1926): 1-6; C. F. Hoover, "The Reputed Conflict between the Laboratories and Clinical Medicine," Science 71 (1930): 491-97; Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, 158-73.
217. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (n. 2 above), 296-98, 583; Sidney L. Pressey, Exercises in Application to Accompany Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 62.
218. Pressey, Psychology and the New Education (n. 2 above), 296-98, 583; Sidney L. Pressey, Exercises in Application to Accompany Psychology and the New Education (New York, 1933), 62.
219. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
220. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
221. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
222. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
223. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
224. On compulsory public schooling in the 1920s, see David Tyack, "The Perils of Pluralism: The Background of the Pierce Case," American Historical Review 74 (1969): 74-98. On enrollment trends, see Judd (n. 23 above), 329; "Class Sizes Are Growing," New York Times, 3 July 1932, education section. The share of total enrollment in private and sectarian schools increased from 7.3 percent in 1920 to 9.4 percent in 1930. Joseph Newman, "Comparing Private and Public Schools in the Twentieth Century: History, Demography and the Debate Over Choice," Educational Foundations 9 (1995): 5-18. Otto F. Kraushaar, American Non-Public Schools (Baltimore, 1972), 14, table 1, and Joseph Newman, America's Teachers (Boston, 2002), 365, table 10.1.
225. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
226. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
227. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
228. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
229. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
230. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
231. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
232. On criticism of the schools, see Frances Jenkins, "Liberty Versus Militarism or License in our Primary Grades," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 131; Ira L. Kandel, "The New School," Teachers College Record 33 (1932): 506; Winthrop Lane, "A Criticism of Public Schools," Survey 43 (1920): 589-90; Gary C. Meyers, "Building Personality in the Classroom," in Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C., 1932), 117; Harold Rugg and Ann Schumacher, The Child-Centered School: An Appraisal of the New Education (New York, 1928), 323; Samuel D. Schmalhausen, Humanizing Education (New York, 1927), 32; T. V. Smith, The Promise of American Politics (Chicago, 1936), i, 2-3; Snedden (n. 22 above).
233. Lula B. Hoss, "Individual Instruction," Survey 36 (1916): 229; T. N. Gillespie, "Masters of Pedagogy," American Mercury, May 1927, 9; W. T. Root, "The Compromise between Mass Teaching and Individual Teaching," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 403-12.
234. Lula B. Hoss, "Individual Instruction," Survey 36 (1916): 229; T. N. Gillespie, "Masters of Pedagogy," American Mercury, May 1927, 9; W. T. Root, "The Compromise between Mass Teaching and Individual Teaching," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 403-12.
235. Lula B. Hoss, "Individual Instruction," Survey 36 (1916): 229; T. N. Gillespie, "Masters of Pedagogy," American Mercury, May 1927, 9; W. T. Root, "The Compromise between Mass Teaching and Individual Teaching," Childhood Education 1 (1924): 403-12.