Preservation, prosperity and power: What motivates China's foreign policy?

Journal of Contemporary China

Volumn 14, Issue 45, 2005, Pages 669-694

  Wang, Fei Ling ^a  

^a GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FOREIGN POLICY; GEOPOLITICS; POWER RELATIONS;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 29344432899     PISSN: 10670564     EISSN: 14699400     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10670560500206033     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Jiang Zemin, Political Report to the 16th CCP National Congress (Beijing, November 2002). Under Hu Jintao, Beijing kept this estimate but rephrased it as a 'coexistence of opportunity and challenges'.
2. See The Communiqué of 4th Plenum of the 16th CCP Central Commission (Beijing, 19 September, 2004).
3. This assessment was first established by the 14th CCP National Congress in 1992. For an analysis of Beijing's general assessment of its security environment, see Yong Deng and Fei-Ling Wang, eds, In the Eyes of the Dragon: China Views the World (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
4. For the latest Chinese views of international relations, see Li Shengming and Wang Yizhou, eds, 2003 Nian quanqiu zhengzhi yu anquan baogao [2003 Yellow Book of International Politics and Security] (Beijiing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Press, 2003), especially pp. 1-15 and 84-105. The CCP leaders basically reaffirmed this in 2004 and 2005.
5. Hu Angang, Zhongguo xiayibu [The Next Step of China] (Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Press, 1996), pp. 1, 20-22, 221.
6. Some have argued that China is facing a 'coming collapse' as its internal problems will derail its economic development. For example, see Gordon Chang, Coming Collapse of China (New York: Random House, 2001). So far, however, this view has been a dissenting fringe voice.
7. Author's interviews in Beijing and Shanghai, 2001-2003.
8. Liu Jiang, 'Shixi Zhongmei jianshixin zhanlue huoban guanxi' ['Preliminary analysis of the Sino-American strategic partnership relations'], Shijia xinshi yanjou [Studies of World Situations] (Beijing) no. 47, (1997), p. 2
9. Liu Jiang, 'Zhongmei guanxi de xianzhuan he fazhan qushi' ['The state and prospects of Sino-American relations'], Shijia xinshi yanjou [Studies of World Situations] (Beijing) no. 26, (1997), p. 3
10. Liu Jiangyong et al., 'Duobian zhuyi jiannan qianxing' ['Multilateralism hardly moves forward'], Global Times (Beijing), (13 August 2004).
11. Fei-Ling Wang, 'To incorporate China: A new policy for a new era', The Washington Quarterly, 21(1), (Winter, January 1998), pp. 67-81.
12. Also, Yong Deng and Fei-Ling Wang, eds, In the Eyes of the Dragon, pp. 21-45.
13. Zhou Jianming, 'Zhanlue jiyu, qianti shi erzhi taidu' ['Strategic opportunity, the precondition is to contain Taiwan's independence'], Global Times, (24 September 2004).
14. Zhang Tuosheng, ed., Huanqio tongci liangre: Yidai lingxoumen de guoji zhanlue sixiang [Same to the Whole Globe: The International Strategic Thoughts of a Generation of Leaders] (Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Press, 1993), p. 312.
15. Wen Jieming et al., eds, Yu zhongshuji tanxin [Chat with the General Secretary] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shihui Kexue Press, 1997), pp. 70 and 232-233.
16. Shi Yinhong and Song Deji, '21 shiji qianqi zhongguo guoji taidu, waijiao zhixue he genben zhanlue sikao' ['China's international attitude, diplomatic philosophy, and basic strategic thinking in the first part of the 21st century'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 1, (2001), pp. 10-11. The journal was closed down by the CCP in September 2004.
17. Qing Wenhui and Sun Hui, 'Hou lengzhan shidai d zhongguo guojia anquan' ['China's national security in the post-Cold War era'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 1, (2001), pp. 3-9.
18. Ruan Zongze, 'Dui 21 shiji zhongmeio xin snajiao guanxi de jidian kanfa' ['A few views on the new Sino-American-Russian triangular relationship in the 21st century'], Guoji wenti yanjiu [Studies of International Affairs] (Beijing) no. 5, (2001), p. 17.
19. Author's interviews in Beijing and Shanghai, 2003-2004. Su Ge, 'Lun zhongmeie gunaxi' ['On the Sino-US-Russian relationship'], Guoji wenti yanjiu [International Affairs] (Beijing) no. 4, (2002)
20. Niu Xinchun, 'Meiguo daxun buna zhongguo shuoshi' ['US elections are not talking about China'], Global Times, (24 September 2004).
21. 'Qinghua-shizhi luntan: Zhongguo waijiao zhouxiang chengshou' ['Qinghhua-shizhi forum: Chinese diplomacy matures'], Shijie zhishi [World Affairs] (Beijing) no. 3, (2003), pp. 30-35.
22. 'PRC: Review of developments in Sino-US relations', Zhongguo Tongxun News Agency, (18 November 1996), in FBIS-CHI-96-224.
23. Also 'China: Qian Qichen discusses world and foreign affairs', Xinhua News Agency, (30 December 1996), in FBIS-CHI-96-251
24. Wang Jisi, 'Ezhi haishi jiaowang?' ['Containment or engagement?'], Guoji wenti yanjiu [International Affairs] (Beijing) no. 1, (1996), p. 6.
25. A slightly different version of this article appeared in Beijing Review no. 43, (21-27 October 1996), pp. 6-9.
26. 'Qinghua-shizhi luntan: Zhongguo waijiao zhouxiang chengshou', p. 33.
27. Hu Jintao's speech at the Summit Meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Moscow, 30 May 2003.
28. 'Qinghua-shizhi luntan: Zhongguo waijiao zhouxiang chengshou', p. 34.
29. Liu Jianfei, 'Renqing fankong yu fanba de guanxi' ['Understanding the relationship between anti-terrorism and anti-hegeminism'], Liaowang zhoukan [Outlook weekly] (Beijing) no. 8, (24 February 2003), pp. 54-56.
30. Tang Yongsheng, 'Zhonghe anquan yu zhongti zhanlui' ['Comprehensive security and grand strategy'], Shijie Zhishi [World Affairs] (Beijing) no. 20 (16 October 1996), pp. 16-17.
31. See, for examples, 'Rioters burn and loot in west China demonstration', Reuters, (20 October 2004) and 'China imposes martial law on rioting town', New York Times, (1 November 2004).
32. Foreign media quickly started to criticize China's lack of action and transparency only a couple of days after the Hong Kong outbreak of SARS caught the attention of the world health community. Dan Mangan, 'China's fatal secret', New York Post, (17 March 2003).
33. Some leading foreign media soon started to suggest 'quarantine China' as a way to punish Beijing for its action or lack of action regarding SARS. 'Quarantine China', editorials in Asian Wall Street Journal (Hong Kong) and The Wall Street Journal (New York), (31 March 2003).
34. Chinese web-based media also carried numerous reports in April-May 2003. Finally, the Chinese government openly acknowledged it and even semi-directly apologized for it by 20 April 2003: Xinhua Daily Telegraph (Beijing), (21 April 2003).
35. All of China's media suddenly started to carry voluminous information on the anti-SARS campaign after 20 April 2003. Major cities like Beijing quickly submerged into a chaotic panic that is obviously not justified by either the contagiousness or the fatality of the epidemic. Political power struggles broke out, financial losses are estimated to be in the billions, and hundreds of millions of people were shaken and awed. The true impact of Beijing's inaction and the sudden panicky action about SARS on China's politics and foreign policy clearly is very significant.
36. For more on the Chinese reactions to SARS in 2003, see the three special issues of Chinese Law and Government, (November-December 2003 to January-February 2004).
37. For the retired military doctor and his revelation of the SARS epidemic in Beijing, see Time Magazine, (9 April 2003).
38. Lou Yaoliang, Diyuan zhengzhi yu zhongguo guofang zhanlue [Geopolitics and China's National Defense Strategy] (Tianjin: Tianjin Remin Press, 2002), pp. 190-191.
39. Author's interview with a top official at the PRC Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing, March 2003.
40. Wang Yusheng, 'Shijie jinru fankong shidai' ['The world enters the era of anti-terror'], Global Times (Beijing), (22 October 2004).
41. To openly discuss the 'fundamental relationship' between political stability and democratization in the PRC is no longer a taboo, although great caution is still required. Recent examples include Wu Kechang, 'Zhengzhi fazhan yu zhengzhi wending' ['Political development and political stability'], Qiusuo [Explore] (Changchun) no. 2, (2002)
42. Wang Jianguo, 'Zhongguo zhaunxing shiqi zhengzhi minzhuhua yu zhengzhi wending de guanxi' ['The relationship between political democratization and political stability in China's transitional period'], Shehui zhuyi yanjiu [Studies of Socialism] (Wuhan) no. 3, (2002).
43. Jiang Zemin, Lun sange daibiao [On 'Three Represents'] (Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Press, 2001).
44. Three represents refer to the revisionist mission statement that the CCP 'should represent the development requirements of China's advanced social productive forces, the progressive course of China's advanced culture, and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people'. Communiqué of the 6th Plenum of the 15th CCP Central Committee (Beijing: Xinhua, 26 September 2001).
45. Also, Communiqué of the 4th Plenum of the 16th CCP Central Committee (Beijing: Xinhua, 19 September 2004).
46. Other than trying to incorporate the business élites, ever since the mid-1980s, the CCP has recruited heavily among the educated youth. As a result, the majority of the graduate students and many of the undergraduate students as well as most of the college faculty in China's top universities are often all CCP members. Author's interviews in China, 2001-2004.
47. Kang Xiaoguang, 'Weilai 3-5 nian zhongguo dalu zhengzhi wendingxing fengxi' ['Analysis of the political stability issue in Chinese Mainland in the next 3-5 years'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 3, (2002), p. 10.
48. In May 2003, amidst China's war on SARS, Beijing announced a submarine disaster with unprecedented speed and candidness. Xinahua and CCTV reports and photographs, 25 May 2003.
49. For example, see the substantial collection of such articles and essays at Chinese websites like http://www.univillage.org/citizen/aduo.htm and http://www.wiapp.org/iappnew.html.
50. Also see the articles on this subject in Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 6, (2002).
51. Xu Xianglin, 'Yi zhengtzhi wending wei jichu d zhongguo jianjin zhengzhi gaige' ['China's gradual political reform based on political stability'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 5, (2000).
52. For the latest of the hukou reforms, see Fei-Ling Wang, Organization through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), pp. 179-203.
53. CCTV News, (19 February 2003).
54. Hu Jintao, 'Xianfa wei jianshi xiaokang shehui tigong fali baozhang' ['The Constitution provides the legal protection for the construction of xiaokang society'], public speech in Beijing, 4 February 2003.
55. Fang Ning, 'Zhiduhua chuanxin zhudao zhongguo zhengazhi dongxiang' ['Institutional innovations leads China's political trends'], Zhonghua gongshang shibao [Chinese Industrial and Commerce Times] (Beijing), (9 January 2003).
56. Li Junru (Vice President of the CCP Central Party School), 'Zhengque lijie he jianchi dang de jiajixing' ['Correctly understand and uphold the party's class nature'], in Lin Rong Xinshiji de sikao [Thinking in the New Century], vol. 1 (Beijing: Central Party School Press, 2002), pp. 163-172.
57. CCP Central Committee, Guanyu jiaqiang dangde zhizheng nengli jianshi de jueding [Resolution on Enhancing the Construction of Party's Governance Capability] (Beijing, 19 September 2004).
58. Kang Xiaoguang, 'Weilai 3-5 nian zhongguo dalu zhengzhi wendingxing fengxi', pp. 1-2.
59. For the latest report on China's needs for more energy and oil imports, see 'Asia's great oil hunt', BusinessWeek, (15 November 2004).
60. Financial Times, (22 September 2004).
61. Lin Rong Xinshiji de sikao, p. 238.
62. Qiu Yuanping, 'Minaxiang shijie de xunyan' ['Declaration to the world'], Qiushi (Beijing) no. 3, (2003), pp. 27-28.
63. The Chinese chief negotiator, Long Yongtu, recalled in 2003 how the top CCP leadership politically decided that they 'must join the WTO' in late 1999. Ceng Yehhui, 'Nanwang shimao tanpan de zuihou guangkou' ['Can't forget the last hurdle of WTO negotiations'], Zhongguo jingji shibao [Chinese Economic Times] (Beijing), (19 September 2003).
64. Zhang Wenmu, 'Quanqiuhua jincheng zhong de zhongguo guojia liye' ['China's national interest in the process of globalization'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 1, (2001), pp. 55-57.
65. Geoffrey York, 'Nationalist fervor runs amok', Global and Mail (Toronto), (25 October 2004).
66. David Shambaugh, Modernizing China's Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 10, 330-332.
67. Author's interviews with PLA officers, 2002-2004.
68. Wen Jieming et al., eds, Yu zhongshuji tanxin, pp. 232-238.
69. Tang Shiping, 'Zailun zhongguo d da zhanlue' ['Another threatment China's grand strategy'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 4, (2001), pp. 29-37
70. Zhang Wenmu, 'Quanqiuhua jincheng zhong de zhongguo guojia liye', pp. 52-64.
71. Lou Yaoliang, Diyuan zhengzhi yu zhongguo guofang zhanlue, p. 255
72. Yan Xuetong, 'Zhongguo zonghe guoli shangbu pingheng' ['China's comprehensive power is not balanced'], Global Times, (24 August 2004).
73. Hu Angang and Meng Honghua, 'Zhongmeirieying youxing zhanlue ziyuan bijiao' ['A comparison of tangible strategic resources among China, the US, Japan, Russia, and India'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 2, (2002), pp. 26-41.
74. Geoffrey York and Marcus Gee, 'Flexing its military muscle', Global and Mail (Toronto), (23 October 2004).
75. Luo Weilong, 'Zhongguoren yao shuo bu' ['Chinese want to say no'], Taipingyang Xuebao [Pacific Journal] (Beijing) no. 2, (1995).
76. Cai Xianwei, Zhongguo da zhanlue: Lingdao shijie de lantu [China's Grand Strategy: A Blueprint for Leading the World] (Haikou: Hainan Press, 1996).
77. For a critical review of this book, see John W. Garver, 'China as number one', The China Journal, (1998).
78. The debate was reported to be largely between Hu Jintao and his advisors and those of Jiang Zemin with the former being the one who first proposed the concept. John J. Tkacik Jr, 'China's "peaceful" rise at stake in power struggle', Asian Times, (8 September 2004) and official Xinhua report at http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2004-09/27/content_2029983.htm.
79. Deng Xiaoping, Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan (1975-1982) [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping] (Beijing: Renmin Press, 1986), p. 204.
80. Zhao Gancheng, 'Yatai diqu xinzhixu yu zhongguo de zeren' ['The new order in Asia-Pacific and the responsibility of China'], Guoji Wenti Luntan [Forum on International Issues] (Beijing) no.2, (1996), pp. 49-51
81. Shi Yongming, 'Yatai anquan huanjing yu diqu duobian zhuyi' ['Security environment in Asia-Pacific and regional multilateralism'], Guoji wenti yanjiu [International Affairs] (Beijing) no. 1, (1996), pp. 41-47
82. Cai Wei, 'Weilai zhonguo de sichong jiaose' ['China's four roles in the future'], Global Times (Beijing), (27 September 2004).
83. For an earlier and extensive discussion on those ideas by Chinese scholars and analysts, see Xiao Ding, 'Yaou hezuo yu fazhan wenti yantaohui jiyao' ['Summary of the Symposium on Asian-European cooperation and development'], Xiandai guoji guanxi [Contemporary International Relations] (Beijing) no. 7, (1996), pp. 42-53.
84. 'Shift in China's foreign policy under Hu', Indo-Asian News Service, (21 October 2004).
85. Zhang Feng, 'Zhongguo fuxin kaiqi xin lishi' ['China's re rejuvenation creates new history'], Global Times (Beijing), (30 August 2004).
86. Zhang Wenmu, 'Quanqiuhua jincheng zhong de zhongguo guojia liye', p. 63.
87. For an analysis on the relationship between war proneness and political democratization, see Edward D. Mansfield and Jack Snyder, 'Democratization and the danger of war', International Security, 20(1), (Summer 1995).
88. For a strong assertion about the crucial importance of the Taiwan issue to PRC security and the CCP regime, see Yan Xuetong, 'Taidu dui zhongguo de anquan weixie' ['The threat of Taiwan independence to China's security'], United Daily (Singapore), (25 June 2004).
89. During Hu Jintao's first formal meeting with Georgia W. Bush in May 2003, the Taiwan issue was once again the major issue that required President Bush to reaffirm Washington's 'one China' policy. This was echoed by Vice-President Dick Cheney's visit to Beijing in April 2004.
90. For an interesting discussion about the profound American influence in China, see Ding Gang, 'Tuo meiguohua: Buke huibi de wenti' ['De-Americanization: An unavoidable question'], Global Times (Beijing), (13 September 2004).
91. Wang Jisi, 'Gailun zhongmeiri sanbian guanxi' ['On the triangular relationship among China, the US and Japan'], in Lin Rong Xinshiji de sikao, p. 3.
92. Tang Shiping, '2010-2015 nian d zhongguo zhoubian angquan huangjin' ['China's neighboring security environment in 2010-2015'], Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management] (Beijing) no. 5, (2002), p. 40.
93. Zhu Tingchang et al., eds, Zhongguo zhoubian anquan hunagjin yu anquan zhanlue [China's Security Environment and Strategy in the Neighboring Areas] (Beijing: Shishi Press, 2002), p. 5.
94. He Dalong, '9.11 hou guoji xingshi d zhongda bianhua', ['Major changes in international situations after 9/11'], Shishi ziliao shouce [Handbook on Current Affairs] (Beijing) no. 4, (20 October 2002), pp. 12 and 15.
95. Qian Qichen, 'US strategy seriously flawed', China Daily (Beijing), (1 November 2004).
96. Kang Xiaoguang, 'Weilai 3-5 nian zhongguo dalu zhengzhi wendingxing fengxi', p. 15.
97. Zheng Bijian (former executive vice president of the CCP's Central Party School) first officially proposed the concept in his speech in November 2003. Hu Jintao (as late as in February 2004) and Wen Jiabao (as late as in March 2004) both advocated the new concept of 'peaceful rise' as it was customary in the PRC for a new leadership to come up with a new slogan. http://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2004-03/26/ content_1386611.htm. However, presumably under pressures, the phrase disappeared from PRC official speeches, statements, and reports by mid-fall of 2004.
98. Decree of the PRC Ministry of Personnel, January 2002. Shishi ziliao shouce (Beijing) no. 4, (20 October 2002), p. 67.